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PRKSENTIi:!) BY 



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TYPES OF READING ABILITY AS EXHIBITED 
THROUGH TESTS AND LABORA- 
TORY EXPERIMENTS 



A DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 

OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE 

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



BY 

CLARENCE TRUMAN GRAY 



Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. I, No. 5 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 

1917 



Ube mniversiti? ot Cblcago 






9^; 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY AS EXHIBITED 
THROUGH TESTS AND LABORA- 
TORY EXPERIMENTS 



A DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 

OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE 

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



BY 

CLARENCE TRUMAN GRAY 



Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. I, No. 5 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 

1917 






Copyright 1917 By 
The University of Chicago 



All Rights Reserved 



Published August 1917 



Composed and Printed By 

The University of Chicago Press 

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

List of Figures in Text v 

List of Diagrams in Text vi 

List of Plates vii 

List of Tables ix 

CHAPTER 

I. Introduction i 

A. The Problem i 

B. Earlier Investigations 3 

1. Visual Perception 3 

2. Motor Phases of the Reading Process 8 

*-«) Eye-Movements 9 

b) Breathing and Oral Reading 10 

c) Inner Speech and Reading 10 

3. Measurement of Reading Ability 11 

C. The Subjects 14 

n. Tests for the Measurement of Reading Ability 17 

A. Oral-Reading Tests 17 

B. Silent-Reading Tests 32 

1. Silent Reading for the Purpose of Answering Questions . . 33 

2. Silent Reading for the Purpose of Reproduction .... 40 

3. Silent Reading for the Purpose of Outlining 43 

4. Rapid Silent Reading 46 

5. Other Tests in Silent Reading 50 

a) Newspaper Test ■ . . 50 

b) Wood worth and Wells's Direction Test 51 

c) Courtis Test $1 

6. Comparison of Results for All Tests 51 

7. Other Reproduction Tests 60 

III. Motor Phases of Reading 65 

A. Rate of Vocalization 65 

1. Pronouncing Rate 67 

2. Counting Rate 68 

iii 



IV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER p^g^ 

B. Vocalization during Silent Reading 68 

C. Breathing in Relation to Oral Reading 70 

D. Eye-Movements 83 

1. Apparatus 83 

a) The Light 83 

h) The Headrest 83 

c) The Camera 85 

d) The Moving Film 86 

2. The Exposure Apparatus 86 

3. Unsatisfactory Records 90 

4. Records for Oral Reading gp 

5. Eye-Movements in Different Tjrpes of Reading .... 103 

6. The Location of Points of Fixation .105 

7. Fixations in Oral Reading 106 

8. Oculists' Tests 120 

IV. Perception Tests 123 

A. Short-Exposure Tests 123 

B. Range of Recognition Test 127 

C. Further Short-Exposure Tests 138 

D. Aussage Tests 143 

E. Range of Distinct- Vision Test 145 

V. Effect of Practice upon Certain Difficulties in Reading .... 147 

A. First Type of Training in Speed 149 

B. Second Type of Training in Speed 157 

C. Training for Increase in Span of Attention. 157 

D. Training in Comprehension . .160 

E. Training to Reduce Vocalization 162 

F. Training in Phonics 164 

Bibliography 168 

Appendix 172 

Index 192 



LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT 

FIGDEE PAGE 

1. Modified Verdun Pneumograph 71 

2. The Light 84 

3. The Headrest 85 

4. The Camera 87 

5. Mechanism for Moving Films 88 

6. Apparatus for Exposing Reading Material 89 

7. Hardy Diaphragm Test 121 

8. Short-Exposure Apparatus 139 



^' 



LIST OF DIAGRAMS IN TEXT 

DIAGRAM 

1. Distribution of Repetitions 

2. Distribution of Insertions . 

3. Distribution of Omissions . 

4. Distribution of Mispronunciations 

5. Distribution of Total Errors 

6. Relation between Span of Attention and Rate of Reading 

7. Relation between Range of Recognition and Rate of Reading 



PAGE 

26 
26 
26 
27 
27 
126 
129 



VI 



LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE PAGE 

I. Differences between Normal Breathing Curves and Breathing 

Curves during Oral Reading 73 

II. Breathing Curve for Sixth-Grade Boy during Reading (Excel- 
lent Reader) 73 

III. Curve Resulting from Abdominal Breathing 73 

IV. Differences between Breast and Abdominal Curves for Sixth- 
Grade Boy 74 

V. Breathing Curve for Seventh-Grade Boy during Reading . 76 

VI. Breathing Curve for Sixth-Grade Boy during Reading ... 76 

VII. Breathing Curve for Seventh-Grade Boy during Reading . . 78 

VIII. Eye-Movement Records facing 90 

IX. Eye-Movement Records following PI. VIII 

X. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations for Subject No. i . . 107 

XI. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations for Subject No. 3 . . 108 

XII. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations for Subject No. 4 . . . 109 

XIII. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations for W. E no 

XIV. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations for B. R in 

XV. Location of Fixation Pauses for B. R. after Twenty Days' 

Practice in Rapid Reading in 

XVI. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye- Voice Span for 

Subject No. 43(A) in Oral Reading 112 

XVII. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye- Voice Span in 

Oral Reading for Subject No. 43 (,B) 113 

XVIII. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye- Voice Span in 

Oral Reading for Subject No. 39 114 

vii 



viii LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE PAGE 

XIX. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye- Voice Span in 

Oral Reading for Subject No. 54 iiS 

XX. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye-Voice Span in 

Oral Reading for Subject No. 55 116 

XXI. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye-Voice Span in 

Oral Reading for Subject No. 53 117 

XXII. Location of Eye-Movement Fixations and Eye-Voice Span in 

Oral ReadiQg for Subject No. 45 118 



LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

I. Degree of Comprehension. Oral and Silent Reading . . 13 

II. Data Concerning Subjects 15 

III. Record of B. R. in Oral Reading 19 

IV. Record of W. E. in Oral Reading 20 

V. Record of All Subjects in the Oral Reading of Prose . . 22 

V A. Summary of Table V on the Basis of Range in Minimum 

Rate 25 

VI. Record of All Subjects in the Oral Reading of Poetry . . 28 

VI A. Summary of Table VI on the Basis of Range in Minimum 

Rate 30 

VII. Record of AU Subjects in the Oral Reading of Oratory . 31 

VII A. Summary of Table VII on the Basis of Range in Minimum 

Rate 32 

VIII. Grades of All Subjects on the Various Phases of Oral 

Reading 34 

IX. Record of B. R. in Silent Reading of Prose for Answering 

Questions 36 

X, Record of W. E. in Silent Reading of Prose for Answering 
Questions 36 

XI. Record of AU Subjects in Silent Reading of Prose for 

Answering Questions 37 

XI A. Sxunmary of Table XI on the Basis of Range in Minimum 

Rate 38 

XII. Record of B. R. in Silent Reading of Poetry for Answering 

Questions 39 

XIII. Record of W. E. in Silent Reading of Poetry for Answering 
Questions 39 

XIV. Record of AU Subjects in Silent Reading of Poetry for 
Answering Questions 41 

XIV A. Summary of Table XIV on the Basis of Range in Minimum 

Rate 42 

ix 



LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

XV. Record of B. R. in Reproduction 43 

XVI. Record of W. E, in Reproduction 43 

XVII. Record of All Subjects in Reproduction 44 

XVII A. Summary of Table XVII on the Basis of Minimiun Rates 45 

XVIII. Record of B. R. in Outlining 46 

XIX. Record of W. E. in Outlining 46 

XX. Record of All Subjects in Outlining 47 

XX A. Summary of Table XX on the Basis of Minimum Rates . 48 

XXI. Record of B. R. in Rapid Silent Reading 48 

XXII. Record of W. E. in Rapid Silent Reading 48 

XXIII. Record of All Subjects in Rapid Silent Reading ... 49 

XXIII A. Summary of Table XXIII on the Basis of Minimum Rates 50 

XXIV. Record of All Subjects in the Newspaper Test .... 52 

XXIV A. Summary of Table XXIV on the Basis of Range in 

Time 53 

XXV. Record of All Subjects in the Woodworth- Wells Direction 

Test 54 

XXV A. Summary of Table XXV on the Basis of Range in 

Time 54 

XXVT. Record of All Subjects in Courtis' Normal Reading Test . 55 

XXVI A. Simimary of Table XXVI on the Basis of Minimum Rate 56 

XXVII. Comparison of Minimum Rates for Various T>pes of 

Reading 56 

XXVIII. Individual and Grade Distributions for Seven Silent- 
Reading Tests 58 

XXIX. Record of Fourteen Subjects in Second Group of Reproduc- 
tion Tests 61 

XXX. Summary of Seven Tests Given Fourteen Selected Subjects 62 

XXXI. Record of Subject No. 22 in Silent Reading of Prose . . 63 

XXXII. Record of All Subjects in Vocalization Tests .... 66 

XXXIII. Increase in Pronouncing Rate According to Grade . . 67 

XXXIV. Counting Rate According to Grade 68 

XXXV. Amount of Vocalization Shown by Each Subject in Silent 

Reading 69 



LIST OF TABLES xi 

TABLE PAGE 

XXXVI. Length of Breathing Periods during Reading .... 80 

XXXVII. Data Concerning Breathing Curves for All Subjects . . 81 

XXXVIII. Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records in Silent Reading 92 

XXXVIII A. Relation between Reading Rate and Pauses per Line . 93 

XXXVIII B. Relation between Reading Rate and Regressive Move- 
ments 95 

XXXVIII C. Relation between Reading Rate and Regressive Move- 
ments for Rapid Readers 95 

XXXIX. Data upon Eye-Movements of Sixth-Grade Subjects in 

Reading the Same Line 96 

XL. Data upon Eye-Movements of Seventh-Grade Subjects in 

Reading the Same Line 96 

XLI. Comparison of Records for Various Grades in Reading 

Silently the Same Material 97 

XLII. Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records in Oral Reading 100 

XLII A. Relation between Number of Pauses and Reading Rate . loi 

XLIII. Comparison of Oral- and Silent-Reading Results . . . 102 

XLIV. Individual Variations in Reading OraUy the Same Line . 103 

XLV. Eye-Movement Record of One Subject in Various Types 

of Silent Reading 104 

XLVL Number of Regressive Movements in Various Types of 

SUent Reading for One Subject 105 

XL VII. Records for B. R. and W. E. in First Perception Test . . 123 

XL VIII. Record for All Subjects in First Perception Test . . . 124 

XLIX. Relation between Span of Attention and Number of 

Pauses per Line 127 

L. Record of B. R. in Second Perception Test . . . . 128 

LI. Record of W. E. in Second Perception Test .... 129 

LII. Record of All Subjects for Range of Recognition at the 

Beginning of a Line 130 

LIII. Record of All Subjects for Range of Recognition at the 

Middle of a Line 132 

LIV. Record of All Subjects for Range of Recognition at the End 

of a Line 134 

LV. Average Range of Recognition for Successive School 

Grades 136 



xii LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

LVI. Range of Recognition in Silent Reading for Adults . . 137 

LVII. Perception Records of Fourteen Individuals with Digits . 141 

LVIII. Perception Records of Fourteen Individuals with Non- 
Sense Materials 141 

LIX. Perception Records of Fourteen Individuals with Different 

Arrangements of Zero 142 

LX. Records of Fourteen Individuals in First Aussage Test . 143 

LXI. Records of Fourteen Individuals in Second Aussage Test . 143 

LXII. Records of Fourteen Individuals in Distinct- Vision Test . 145 

LXin. Record of B. R, in Silent Reading after Practice . . . 148 

LXIV. Record of W. E. in Silent Reading after Practice . . . 149 

LXV. Material Read and Rates Attained by B. R. in Practice 

Period 150 

LXVI. Material Read and Rates Attained by W. E. in Practice 

Period 150 

LXVn. Record of B. R. and W. E. in Perception before and after 

Practice 151 

LXVin. Record of B. R. in SUent Reading after a Period of Three 

Months ,.,.., 152 

LXIX. Record of W. E. in Silent Reading after a Period of Three 

Months 152 

LXX. Eye-Movement Records of B. R. and W, E. before and 

after Practice 153 

LXXI. Record of Subject No. 30 in Silent Reading before and after 

a Period of Three Months 154 

LXXII. Record of Subject No. 29 in Silent Reading before and 

after a Period of Three Months 155 

LXXin. Eye-Movement Records of Subject No. 29 before and after 

a Period of Three Months 156 

LXXIV. Eye-Movement Records of Subject No. 30 before and after 

a Period of Three Months 156 

LXXV. Record of a Subject before and after Practice in Speed 

Reading 158 

LXXVI. Record of Subject No. 15 before and after Short-Exposiire 

Practice 159 



LIST OF TABLES xiii 

TABLE PAGE 

LXXVII. Record of Subject No. 17 before and after Short-Exposure 

Practice 159 

LXXVIII. Record of Subject No. 14 before and after Training in 

Comprehension 160 

LXXIX. Record of Subject No. 27 before and after Training in 

Comprehension 161 

LXXX. Record of Subject No. 28 before and after Practice in the 

Decrease of Vocahzation 162 

LXXXI. Record of Subject No. 16 before and after Practice in the 

Decrease of VocaUzation 163 

LXXXII. Record of Subject No. 5 before and after Practice in 

Phonics 165 

LXXXIII. Record of Subject No. i before and after Practice in 

Phonics 166 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author wishes to acknowledge the support given by the 
General Education Board to this investigation. The Board made 
possible by a grant a leave of absence from regular instructorial 
duties for a year, and also the construction of the elaborate appa- 
ratus used. Acknowledgment is also made of the co-operation of 
the University of Texas in arranging the leave of absence, and the 
co-operation of the University of Chicago, where the investigation 
was carried out. 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

THE PROBLEM 

The fact that great individual differences exist in the ability 
of pupils in reading has been known by practical teachers since 
instruction in reading first began, but the effort to give scientific 
descriptions of these differences is a matter of very recent years. 
As soon as definite tests of reading are appUed in schools, it appears 
that individual differences are very striking. Thus it will be 
shown in detail through some of the tests in oral reading that 
certain high-school pupils cannot read with success selections which 
many fifth-grade pupils read fluently and with understanding. 
Furthermore, one test in silent reading has shown that some pupils 
in the sixth grade read silently at the rate of 1.5 or 2 words per 
second, while others in the same class read the same selection at 
the rate of 5 or 6 words per second. These differences in rate 
exist in spite of the fact that school authorities have classified 
these pupils together as able to do the same school work and in 
spite of the fact that in most cases such pupils have had the same 
school training in reading. 

The discovery of such variations leads at once to the demand 
that their causes be discovered. Doubtless some of the differ- 
ences are inherent in the mental character of the pupils, while 
others are due to the training in reading which the individual 
has had. If these differences are made the basis of experiments 
in training, it is found that in some cases large changes can be 
brought about, while in other cases training seems to have little 
or no effect. Where differences between pupils can be traced to 
methods of training, it is often a simple matter to suggest changes 
in methods of instruction which will be of advantage. 

The general types of methods for studying individual differences 
in reading have been reported in the literature on this subject. 
The first type consists in a careful and detailed experimental 



2 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

investigation. Illustrations of this type of work may be drawn 
from Messmer's (28)^ work in perception or the work of Erdmann 
and Dodge (11) in eye-movements. It is of interest to note that 
this method is historically much older than the second method to 
be described. It is also true that this experimental method has 
been developed in psychological laboratories by men who have 
had only secondary interest in the educational bearing of the 
results. Attention should be called to the fact that in nearly 
every case the subjects who took part in these experimental in- 
vestigations were adults rather than children. For students of 
educational problems this fact gives rise to a very serious difficulty 
in interpreting the results. 

The second t)Ape of method is of recent origin and has been 
developed and used by those who are interested in educational 
problems. It consists in the employment of tests by means of 
which ability in either oral or silent reading may be determined. 
These tests are commonly used with a large number of children, 
and the results are compiled so as to determine norms and to 
show the characteristics of groups rather than of individuals. 

The net result of the work which has been done in reading by 
these two types of methods is a considerable body of information 
concerning certain phases of the reading process. This informa- 
tion is, however, of a very general type and has never been put 
in a form which makes possible a careful diagnosis of an individual 
pupil. Indeed, much of it is too general to be applied directly 
to the case of a single pupil. The present investigation may be 
described as an attempt to use all the results now at hand and to 
develop new methods which will lead to accurate accounts of the 
reading process of single individuals. To be sure, Messmer's 
work has aimed in part at a like result and gives information about 
the perception of certain individuals; but nothing is known of 
their oral- or silent-reading ability, and Messmer has not employed 
at all the laboratory method of recording eye-movements. Other 
authors, also, give incidental observations on individuals, but 
undertake no systematic study of the reading process. The field 
of investigation is therefore comparatively unoccupied. 

^Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography, to be found on pp. 168 ff. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

The methods employed in the present inquiry are various, 
many of them being borrowed directly from earlier workers. The 
first chapter of the report will therefore be devoted largely to 
a brief summary of earlier studies which have been used in the 
course of the present inquiry. 

EARLIER INVESTIGATIONS 

The investigations which are to be included here divide them- 
selves into three distinct groups. The first group deals with 
visual perception. Many of the studies of this mental activity 
have a direct bearing on the reading process. The first results 
in this field were really a by-product of reaction-time experiments 
and were procured by men who at the time were not interested 
primarily either in perception or in reading. 

Investigations of the second group concerned themselves 
with certain motor processes related to reading. The work of 
Erdmann and Dodge (11), which has been mentioned in another 
connection, will serve as an illustration of this group. 

The third type of investigation tested the results of instruc- 
tion. This kind of work has been mentioned in another connection 
and need not be discussed further at this time. 

VISUAL PERCEPTION 

One of the most important problems which has been investigated 
in studies of visual perception is the determination of the unit of 
perception. The question here raised is as follows: How long 
does it require for an observer to recognize a unit percept, such 
as a word or a letter? The first results were obtained by Exner 
(12) and Baxt (2). These early writers did scarcely more than 
call attention to the problem. The first conclusive evidence 
given upon this point is the work of Cattell (4), which was done in 
the laboratory at Leipzig. He exposed letters, phrases, and 
sentences by means of a fall chronometer. His conclusion was 
that perception in ordinary reading does not proceed by letters, 
but by words and, in some cases, even by phrases or sentences. 
He reached this conclusion because he found that the time required 
for the recognition of a word was no greater than that for a letter. 



4 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

In the cases where sentences or phrases were exposed he observed 
that sometimes they, too, were grasped as units. 

This work of Cattell (4) was later confirmed by the work of 
Erdmann and Dodge (11). These authors based their conclusions 
upon a large number of exposures and have shown that words 
may be recognized when the individual letters are too small to 
be identified or when parts of the word are out of the range of 
clear vision. Each of these investigations is important because 
of the bearing which it has on the teaching of primary reading. 
Present-day methods of teaching begin with either the sentence 
or the word, and doubtless the investigations referred to have had 
much to do with making the new methods acceptable. 

Another perceptual problem which has received careful atten- 
tion is that of the grouping or arrangement of impressions. Gold- 
scheider and Miiller (15) were the first investigators in this field. 
They showed that, if several straight Knes in various arrangements 
were exposed for a very short time, the greatest number that 
could be recognized was four or five. If these Hnes were arranged 
in some regular or symmetrical form, however, the span of percep- 
tion was increased to seven. The same general principle holds 
with regard to geometrical forms, such as squares, rectangles, 
etc. Later Erdmann and Dodge (11) established the same general 
principle for language forms. That is, words are readily dis- 
tinguished when written or printed on a horizontal line, but are 
not readily recognized if printed in a vertical column, although 
the order of the letters may be the same. Freeman (14) has 
shown that the same law holds with regard to number groupings. 
All of these researches indicate clearly the value of the general 
form for perception and show how necessary it is for primary 
teachers to know the characteristics which differentiate words as 
wholes and which enable children to perceive them. 

A third problem in the general field of perception is the deter- 
mination of the value of different letters. Goldscheider and Miiller 
(15) have named certain letters "determining" letters and others 
"indifferent" letters. By this is meant that certain letters may 
be omitted from a word, and yet such a word may be easily recog- 
nized. To illustrate, if the word "letter" is written l-tt-r, there is 



INTRODUCTION 5 

little difficulty in the recognition of it. In this case e would be 
the "indifferent" letter, while the others are ''determining" 
letters. Although both vowels and consonants belong to each 
class, consonants probably are the "determining" letters more 
often than vowels, because they extend above and below the line. 
The work of Zeitler (45) confirmed these results. He uses the 
term "dominating" instead of "determining" and emphasizes 
the fact that in perception these "dominating" letters serve as 
points for the fixation of attention, while apperception fills in the 
remaining space. 

The relation of the form of the different letters to perception 
is discussed by Messmer (28). He distinguishes three significant 
characteristics in letters: first, the breadth of the letters; second, 
their height; and third, their geometrical form. The first of these 
characteristics is illustrated by the difference in width of such 
letters as n and m, or v and w. It is the opinion of this author 
that this characteristic of letters has Httle, if anything, to do with 
perception, because it disappears in the total impression of the 
word whole. The second characteristic of letters is illustrated in 
the difference in height between a and h. Messmer argues that 
some letters break up the word into sections. Attention may be 
called to the difference between such words as "philanthropy" 
and "consciousness." Evidently the first of these words is much 
broken up, while the second is monotonous. The last characteristic 
of letters is illustrated by the entirely different geometrical form* 
of the letters and w. Messmer (28) divides letters with regard 
to geometrical form into three groups : first, those made of vertical 
strokes, such as i, /, and h; second, those composed for the most 
part of curved Unes, as 0, c, and a; and third, those which have a 
combination of the first and second forms, as b and d. Messmer 
finds that different readers make very different use of the percepts 
derived from letters. He distinguishes two groups of readers — 
objective readers and subjective readers. The first group is 
composed pf those who depend on the "dominating" letters in 
their recognition of words. This means that their attention is 
fixed upon details, that they take in Httle in a single act of percep- 
tion and as a result make few mistakes. On the other handj the 



6 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

subjective group is made up of readers who do not depend in any 
great degree upon perception of the details of the word, but supply 
a large part of the percept out of their interpreting power. 

Huey (21) found that the first half of a word has more value 
for perception than the latter portion. He also points out that 
the upper portion of a word is more important for perception than 
the lower portion. 

The earliest investigators in the field of the relative legibility 
of different kinds of printing were Griffing and Franz (19). They 
found that the larger types are in every instance more legible than 
the smaller types, and that Gothic letters are more legible than 
Roman letters. Cattell (4), in his short-exposure work, found the 
descending order of legibility for capitals to be as follows : W-Z-M- 
D-H-K-N-X-A-Y-0-G-L-Q-I-S-C-T-R-P-B-V-F-U-J-E. This order 
was changed very much for lower-case letters. Sanford (37) 
and Finzi (13) also worked on this problem. Their method was 
the same as that used by Cattell. The kind of type was different 
in the two experiments, hence the results are not comparable. 
More recently Roethlein (34) reports an extensive investigation on 
the legibility of various kinds of type. Her results indicate that 
legibility is a product of six factors: first, the form of the letter; 
second, the size of the letter; third, the thickness of the lines which 
constitute the letter; fourth, the width of the white margins which 
surround the letter; fifth, the position of the letter in the letter 
group; and sixth, the shape and size of the adjacent letters. 

The effect of practice on the span of perception has been 
investigated by Whipple (44). He exposed non-sense material 
and digits with a short-exposure apparatus. His conclusion is 
that with such material there is no improvement except that which 
can be explained by the fact that the subjects become accustomed 
to the experiment and learn certain "tricks" by which they can 
remember. Whipple gives the following conditions on which 
efficiency in visual apprehension seems to depend: first, native 
capacity for concentration; second, degree of attention; third, 
the type of material; fourth, ease of assimilation; fifth, obstructions 
and distractions; sixth, ideational types; seventh, restrictions; 
and eighth, grouping. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

Closely related to the effect of practice on the perceptual span 
is its increase with age. Grififing (i8) has shown that from the 
seventh to the eighteenth year there is a gradual increase in the 
percentage of digits perceived visually. The method of this 
author was different from the usual method of giving short-exposure 
tests, in that he varied the time between the "ready" signal and 
the exposure from 6 seconds to 1.5 minutes, without the knowledge 
of the subject, with the idea of testing the subject's power of 
prolonged attention. This variation in method makes rather 
doubtful the use of his results in connection with the others here 
reviewed. 

Another problem for consideration is that of the range of 
distinct vision in its relation to reading. This problem was first 
attacked by Ruediger (36). Other investigators had concerned 
themselves with the field of peripheral vision, but Ruediger set 
himself the problem of determining how far from a central point 
of fixation the two letters n and u could be recognized. His 
results were obtained by the use of the fall chronometer. His 
conclusion was that there is no relation between the span of vision 
and the rate of reading. He called attention also to the fact that 
the rapid readers do not make use of their entire span of distinct 
vision. A second investigator in this field is Dockeray (9). He 
found that the span of distinct vision for letters in ten-point type 
at a distance of thirty-five centimeters from the eye is from twenty 
to twenty-two millimeters. He concludes also that in ordinary 
reading all the letters read must come within the field of distinct 
vision, and that probably the fields of distinct vision overlap in 
successive fixations. 

Quantz (33) approached the problem of the span of perception 
by shutting out the perceptual field while a reader was reading 
orally. He put a card over the page of reading matter at some 
predetermined point while the reading was in progress. The 
reader was expected to go on reading as far as possible. Quantz's 
results show that much depends upon the place in the line at which 
the view is obstructed. If the view is cut off at the beginning of 
the line, an average of 7.4 words are seen in advance; in the middle 
of the line, 5.1 words in advance; while at the end only 3.8 words 
are seen. 



8 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

This author also reports a high correlation between the number 
of words perceived ahead of the voice and the rate of reading. It 
is especially important to keep in mind these results because they 
draw attention to the fact that the reading process, when once 
under way, is very different from the reading of single words or 
reading at the beginning of a line. 

The foregoing summary of investigations of perception shows 
that not less than eleven problems in visual perception have been 
attacked experimentally. Those which seem to relate directly to 
the problem at hand are as follows: (i) perceptual span, (2) effect 
of practice upon the visual span, (3) range of distinct vision, 
and (4) eye-voice separation in oral reading. 

With the exception of the last of these problems, each one has 
been investigated by means of short-exposure apparatus. In most 
cases the apparatus used to give the short exposure consisted of 
a falling plate. In the experiment of Whipple (44) the short 
exposure is procured by means of a moving disk. Both types of 
apparatus are open to objections for use with children on account 
of the distraction which results from the moving of the parts. In 
the work of Dockeray (9) the Dodge mirror apparatus was used. 
If an adequate lighting system is provided, this apparatus lends 
itself well to work with children. For the fourth t}T)e of experi- 
ment the method which Quantz (33) used was very crude. The 
results are suggestive, and the experiments should be repeated with 
better technique. Furthermore, Quantz might have extended 
the same tj^e of investigation to silent reading. In that case it 
would be necessary for the subject to note introspectively the 
point at which the reading material disappeared and to give as 
many words as possible beyond that point. Such introspection 
is comphcated and can be used only with adults. 

MOTOR PHASES OF THE READING PROCESS 

Under motor phases of the reading process three different 
t3^es of investigation have been carried on. The first of these 
gives results concerning eye-movements during reading; the second 
is concerned with the relation between oral reading and breathing; 
while the third gives results on vocaHzation during silent reading. 



INTRODUCTION 9 

Eye-movements. — Four methods have been used in investigating 
eye-movements. Javal and Lamare (26) attached a delicate 
microphone to the eyeHd and were thus able to hear the sudden 
stops of the eye. This is known as the acoustic method. Erd- 
mann and Dodge (11) observed the movements of the eye by means 
of a mirror or telescope. Huey (21) used the method of attaching 
a lever to the eye and recording the movement on a kymograph. 
While each of these three methods is very crude in its technique, 
the results correspond very closely to those obtained by the fourth 
method. The most highly refined method and that which has 
given the best results is the photographic method. Dodge (10), 
Dearborn (8), Huey (21), and others have used the method of 
photographing the movements of a beam of light reflected from 
the cornea of the eye. This method was criticized by Judd (22), 
who thought it better to use a white spot on the cornea. However, 
Dodge (10) has presented data by both methods and has shown 
that the criticism is valid only in part. 

Three types of movements of the eye appear in reading. First, 
there is the movement across the page, which proceeds by a series 
of short rapid movements, followed by pauses long enough to 
permit perception. Secondly, there are a small number of re- 
gressive movements which must be interpreted to mean that the 
eye has gone too far and must move backward and refixate. Thirdly 
Dearborn (8) reports a slight wavering movement which in many 
cases seems to be very like movements of the first t3^e. 

An important question which has been much discussed in 
the papers on eye-movements is the question whether there is 
perception during eye-movements. The preponderance of evi- 
dence seems to indicate that there is no perception during 
movement. 

The number, length, and location of the pauses which the eye 
makes in each line of reading material present subjects for study. 
Large individual variations exist, depending on the rate of the 
reading and on the subject-matter read. Dearborn (8) calls 
attention to another factor which helps to determine the number 
of pauses. This is the motor habits into which the eye falls as 
different lengths of line are read. 



10 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

Breathing and oral reading. — The work which has been done 
in relation to breathing and oral reading is limited. Scripture 
(38) has reported the fact that any word or phrase is uttered with 
a single continuous action and is not broken up into units corre- 
sponding to the written elements. Sweet (41) says that the only 
breaks made in language are those made by the breath pauses 
which have a close relation to the logical units of our language. 
Wallin (43) has called attention to the fact that the average num- 
ber of syllables between these breath pauses is only about six. 
Scripture (38), also, has called attention to the fact that the 
utterance of any word calls into play three different sets of 
muscles: the muscles of the chest, which control respiration; 
of the larynx, which produce sound by making the vocal cords 
tense; and of the tongue, jaws, and palate, which modify the 
sound. 

Some tentative results along this line, which were reported by 
the author of this investigation (16) in an earlier paper, were 
based on the pneumograph records of about forty children. Two 
of the conclusions were that there are sex differences and that 
there are decided differences for different school grades. 

Inner speech and reading. — The last problem to be considered 
here is that of inner speech during reading. In discussing this 
point Meumann (29) suggests four questions, as follows: first, 
whether we must have inner speech in order to understand words; 
second, whether inner speech is purely acoustic, or motor, or both; 
third, whether inner speech is always present; and fourth, whether 
inner speech has any real significance for reading. Meumann's 
questions are of great importance to the psychologist who is 
concerned with the theory of perception. For our purposes these 
questions are of importance only in so far as inner speech affects 
rate and comprehension. On these problems the experimental 
evidence is limited. Secor (39) has shown that persons can read 
while they whistle, even though it must be assumed that whistling 
interferes with inner reading. Huey (21) tested thirty persons 
and in each case found that inner speech played some part in 
reading. These experiments show that inner speech is a combina- 
tion of auditory and motor elements. Dodge (10) has noted that 



INTRODUCTION ii 

inner speech is a very much shortened process as compared with 
speaking aloud. Quantz (33) found that children always read 
with a large amount of lip-movement. This movement, however, 
disappears to a very large degree with practice. Messmer (28) 
holds to the view that the auditory and motor centers work to- 
gether in reading. Hansen and Lehman (20) found that, if a 
subject thought intently of a word, there was an audible whisper 
which could be heard if conditions were favorable. Curtis (7) 
procured objective records of some of the movements in articula- 
tion by means of a tambour placed over the larynx. In fifteen 
out of twenty cases he found movement, while in the remaining 
five cases the results were negative. This probably means that 
the apparatus was not sufficiently refined to get results in all cases. 
Courten (5) experimented with the movements of the tongue by 
means of a Rousslet exploratory bulb and reports that in every 
case he found movement. Pintner (31) trained two subjects to 
read silently at the same time that they counted out loud. This 
they were able to do after they had practiced counting the series 
13, 14, 15, 16; 13, 14, 15, 16, etc., until it had become mechanical. 
His conclusions are as follows: first, that articulation during the 
reading process is a habit which is not necessary for that process; 
secondly, that, through practice, reading without articulation will 
be as good as the ordinary reading of the same individual, which 
involves some movement; thirdly that practice in reading without 
articulation tends to aid ordinary reading. 

Without doubt each of the three types of experiments which 
have just been described should be included in any comprehensive 
analysis of reading. Later discussion will reveal the adaptations 
which have been made of each of the methods described above in 
order to render them available for this investigation. 

MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 

Turning now to the last of the three fields mentioned at the 
beginning of this survey, we find two general problems to be 
considered — rate and comprehension in silent reading, and rate 
and accuracy in oral reading. The investigation of these problems 
has been carried on through certain tests. 



12 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

The early investigators in this field were Romanes (35), Abell 
(i), and Quantz (33). They found very marked individual differ- 
ences in the rate of reading. In testing for assimilation or com- 
prehension they used the method of written reproduction. Abell 
(i) concludes that comprehension is independent of the rate of 
reading, while both Quantz (33) and Romanes (35) think that 
assimilation or comprehension varies with the rate. 

In a recent pubKcation on this generallopic Thorndike (42) 
suggests various methods for testing reading ability. His tests 
deal, first, with the understanding of single words; secondly, with 
the understanding of sentences and paragraphs. The first test 
is one in which the pupil is expected to indicate the meaning of 
disconnected words in certain prescribed ways. The second test 
consists of two parts. In the first part the pupil is required to 
read paragraphs and to answer questions upon them in writing; 
in the second part he is directed to do a number of very simple 
things. Recently Thorndike has suggested a revision and refine- 
ment of this second test. 

One of the most elaborate investigations of reading ability 
which has been made is by William S. Gray (17) and is reported 
in the Cleveland Survey. Tests were given in both oral and silent 
reading to several thousand children in the Cleveland schools. 
In oral reading both rate and errors were noted, while in silent 
reading the rate was noted and comprehension was tested both 
by questions and by reproduction. Contrasts between oral and 
silent reading were made, and graphs which indicate the develop- 
ment of reading ability through the grades were presented. 

Another type of test for silent reading has been used by Starch 
(40). His method may be spoken of as the reproduction method. 
In tests of this kind the child is allowed to read a passage and, as 
a test of comprehension, is asked to reproduce the passage in 
writing. Additional work in silent reading has been done by 
Kelly (25), Oberholtzer (30), and others by methods not unlike 
those described above. 

The most complete system of tests for oral reading is that 
worked out by William S. Gray (17). This consists of standardized 
paragraphs of prose material. The series of selections begins 



INTRODUCTION 



13 



with very easy passages and ranges to very difficult material. 
The child reads the selections orally, and the experimenter marks 
the errors made. In all of these tests the rate of reading may be 
taken into consideration by methods which are too obvious to 
need explanation. Gray has also standardized passages for use in 
silent-reading tests. 

It may be noted that the use of standardized material makes 
possible a very wide range of comparisons which cannot be instituted 
with ordinary reading matter. Thorndike, Kelly, and Gray have 
attempted to standardize the material used in the test, while 
Oberholtzer (30) and others have used material found in the 
regular school readers. 

The differences in degree of comprehension in silent and in 
oral reading are of interest at this point. This has been investigated 
by Mead (27), by Pintner (31), and by Pintner and Gilliland (32). 
Mead finds that, with the exception of one class, each of the 
classes investigated read in a given interval a greater number of 
lines silently than orally. He also states that, without exception, 
each class reproduced a greater percentage of possible points by 
the silent method of reading than by the oral method. In this 
connection Pintjier (31) found that for fourth-grade pupils silent 
reading was the most economical. Pintner and Gilliland (32) 
give results for elementary and high-school pupils as well as for 
college students. The percentage of students who comprehended 
better by the oral and silent methods of reading, respectively, 
are shown in Table I. 

TABLE I 
Degree of Comprehension — Oral and Silent Reading 





College 


High 
School 


Grades 




7-8 


5^ 


3-4 


Percentage oral 


20.0 
730 


40.0 
550 


50.0 
50.0 


46.6 
50.0 


63.3 


Percentage silent 


36.6 



The tests of Courtis (6), also, should be mentioned here. They 
are of particular interest because these tests differentiate reading 
as normal reading and careful reading. 



14 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

The work of Brown (3) marks a forward step in the study of 
reading in that it attempts to diagnose the difficulties of certain 
pupils. 

There are a number of distinctions suggested by these papers 
but not fully worked out. Thus no attempt has been made to 
inventory the different types of comprehension used in the class- 
room. Certainly, comprehension as exhibited in answering ques- 
tions and that shown in direct reproduction of what is read are 
not the only types of comprehension called for in school work. 
Children often have to reason about the material they have read. 
Again, the distinction between reading and study has not been 
drawn. It would seem that, if a pupil is given a complicated 
situation in a short paragraph and then is given time to think the 
problem out, there is more study than reading involved. 

THE SUBJECTS 

Such a study as the one to be reported in this monograph 
must necessarily be intensive rather than extensive, hence the 
number of subjects used is rather limited. Of the fifty-nine 
subjects studied, forty-one were selected from the Elementary 
School of the University of Chicago, ten from the University 
High School, and the remaining eight were women from the College 
of Education. In Table II is shown the age, grade, and sex of 
fifty-one of the subjects, the school in which their early training 
was received, and their marks in two studies other than oral read- 
ing. History was selected because it is a study in which a large 
amount of reading is required, and handwork was selected because 
it requires little reading. In the case where a history grade was 
not available a grade in geography was substituted. In the 
column for early training, U.E.S. means University Elementary 
School, C.P.S. means Chicago public schools, P.S. means parochial 
school, and Pr.S. means private school. The age is given in years 
and months. A means excellent; B, good; C, fair; D, poor; E, 
conditional ; and F, failed. 

The selection of the various subjects from the elementary and 
high school was determined by the results of a survey"^ of the 

^The author is indebted to Dr. W. S. Gray for access to these results, 



INTRODUCTION 



15 



TABLE II 
Data Concerning Subjects 









Age 


Grades for First Semester 191S-16 , 


Early 
Training 


Grade J 


SUBJECT 


Sex 


Yr.-Mo. 


Reading 
Ability 


Oral 
Reading 


Hand- 
work 


History 




I 


B 


9~ 


P 


c 


A- 


B 


U.E.S. 




2 


G 


9- 6 


M 


B 


B 


A 


U.E.S. 




3 


B 


8-10 


M 


A 


c+ 


B 


Pr.S. 




4 


B 


8-1 1 


M 


A 


B 


C 


U.E.S. 


3 


5 


B 


8-1 1 


P 


D 


C- 


A 


C.P.S. 




6 


G 


8- 4 


G 


A 


B 


B 


U.E.S. 




7 


G 


7- 9 


G 


A 


B- 


C 


U.E.S. 




8 


B 


8- 9 


P 


D 


C 


C 


Pr.S. 




. 9 


G 


8- 7 


M 


C 


C 


B 


C.P.S. 




10 


B 


10- 3 


G 


B 


C 


B 


U.E.S. 




II 


B 


10- 5 


G 


B 


A- 


B- 


U.E.S. 




12 


G 


II- 2 


M 


C- 


c+ 


C- 


U.E.S. 




13 


G 


II- 6 


G 


C- 


c+ 


B 


C.P.S. 


4 


14 


B 


9- 3 


P 


E 


B 


A 


U.E.S. 




IS 


B 


II- 2 


P 


C- 


B+ 


B- 


Pr.S. 




16 


G 


9-10 


P 


c 


B + 


B 


U.E.S. 




. 17 


G 


10- 8 


P 


D 


B- 


C 


Pr.S. 




■ 18 


B 


II- 8 


M 


C 


B 


C 


U.E.S. 




19 


B 


II- 5 


M 


C- 


B 


C- 


C.P.S. 




20 


G 


lO-II 


P 


C 


C 


D 


U.E.S. 




21 


B 


lO-II 


M 


C 


B 


B 


U.E.S. 


5 


22 


B 


II- 8 


P 


B 


C- 


C 


U.E.S. 




23 


G 


II- I 


P 


C- 


C 


D 


U.E.S. 




24 


G 


12- I 


M 


B 


B + 


A 


Pr.S. 




. 25 


G 


II- I 


M 


C- 


B 


C- 


C.P.S. 




■ 26 


B 


13- 2 


P 


D 


B 


D 


C.P.S. 




27 


B 


13- 7 


P 


C 


B- 


D 


C.P.S. 




28 


B 


14- 5 


M 


C 


B- 


D 


U.E.S. 


6 


29 


B 


13- 2 


P 


C 


B + 


D 


U.E.S. 




30 


B 


II- 6 


G 


B + 


B- 


A 


U.E.S. 




31 


B 


13- 3 


G 


C 


C 


B- 


C.P.S. 




. 32 


B 


II- 8 


M 


C 


C+ 


C 


U.E.S. 




' 33 


B 


13- 


M 


C 


B 


C 

(geography) 


Military 
school 




34 


G 


12- 7 


M 


C- 


D 


D 


U.E.S. 




35 


G 


13-10 


P 


C 


B 


C- 


U.E.S. 




36 


B 


14- 


P 


C 


C 


B- 

(geography) 


P.S. 


7 


37 


G 


14- 5 


M 


B- 


A 


B 

(geography) 


C.P.S. 




38 


B 


13- 4 


M 


C 


B 


c+ 


U.E.S. 




39 


B 


ii-ii 


M 


C 


B 


B- 

(geography) 


U.E.S. 




40 


B 


12-10 


M 


B- 


C 


C 


U.E.S. 




. 41 


B 


12- 8 


G 


B- 


C 


B + 


CP.S. 



i6 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 
TABLE 11— Continued 









Age 


Grades for First Semester igis-i6 


Early 

Training 


Grade 


Subject 


Sex 














Yr.-Mo. 


Reading 
Ability 


Other Subjects 






■ 42 


G 


18-10 


G 


Average 93 


C.P.S. 




43 


B 


18-10 


G 


Average 71 + 


C.P.S. 




44 


G 


17- 6 


P 


English 70; handwork 85 


U.E.S. 




45 


G 


17- 7 


G 


Average 84+ 


Pr.S. 




46 


G 


14- 6 


G 


Average 84-(- 


U.E.S. 


H.S... 


47 


B 


17- I 


M 


English 70; science and hand- 
work 80-85 


C.P.S. 




48 


G 


15-11 


G 


Average 85+ 


U.E.S. 




49 


B 


16- 


P 


English F ; handwork A 


CP.S. 




SO 


G 


18- 5 


G 


Average 85+ 


C.P.S. 




. SI 


B 


16-10 


M 


Average 70 


CP.S. 



reading work of those schools which was made during the years 
1914-16. This survey revealed many differences in the reading 
ability of the pupils even in the same grades, with respect both 
to rate and to comprehension. 

In order that this investigation might include all types of 
readers, certain pupils were chosen who had done very poorly in 
the tests used in the survey, others were selected who did exceed- 
ingly, well, while others had an average record. The column 
headed "Reading Ability" is a general estimate based upon the 
results of the above-mentioned survey and the results of the present 
investigation. P means poor; M means medium; while G stands 
for good. 

The data concerning the college subjects are limited, and they 
have not been listed in this table. Their grades in college are 
above the average. 



CHAPTER II 
TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 

This chapter reports certain preliminary tests of both oral and 
silent reading carried out on all the persons investigated in this 
study. The results of these tests were made the basis for the experi- 
ments to be reported in later chapters. 

At the outset the following passage was given to the pupils to 
read: 

Some of the men in the College of Education are very much interested in 
finding out how boys and girls learn to read. You have been selected, along 
with a large number of other children, to do some reading for me. I hope that 
you will do your very best and that you wiU foUow my directions closely. 

A like passage was shown to the adults. The rest of the material 
used was either printed or typewritten and presented to the readers 
on separate sheets. All tests were given to the pupils individually. 
Tests continued in most cases for a period of 30 minutes. Each 
test was timed by means of a stop-watch. The readers were seated 
and made to feel as comfortable and natural as possible. ' 

ORAL-READING TESTS 

The material for the oral tests consisted, first, in the standard 
passages in William S, Gray's reading scale (17). Since these 
passages are all descriptive and narrative prose passages, two new 
types of material were added^ — ^namely, poetry and an oratorical 
passage. The poetry was of four grades— very simple, easy, 
medium, and difficult. Owing to the difficulty of finding oratorical 
selections which required different degrees of reading ability, only 
one selection of this type was included in the tests. 

As the subject read, four different kinds of mistakes were 
recorded— omissions, repetitions, insertions, and mispronuncia- 
tions. One of the prose selections used is presented below, with 
the mistakes of a sixth-grade pupil marked. The symbols used to 
indicate the errors are as follows: "R" means repetition; ''O" 

17 



1 8 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

means omission; "A" means insertion; "M" means mispro- 
nunciation. 

7? 



Once I went home from the city for a sum- 
mer's rest. I took, my gun for a stroll in the 



woods where iQiacj) shot many squirrels. I put my 
gun against a tree and lay down upon the leaves.. 
Soon I was fast asleep dreaming of a group of 
merry, laughing children running and playing 
about me on all sides. 



The pupil was graded by the experimenter as poor, fair, good, 
or excellent, on the following points:^ poise, pitch, articulation, 
pronunciation, emphasis, force, and interpretation. Poise refers 
to the freedom which the subject seemed to feel in the reading. 
For a number of superfluous movements and other signs of embar- 
rassment a low grade was given; if the subject seemed perfectly at 
ease, a high grade was given. It is important to distinguish 
between lack of poise which is habitual with the subject and that 
produced by the conditions of the experiment. In most cases 
when the latter was present it disappeared before the tests were 
finished and was therefore absent when the grade was given. 

Pitch was included in the list because some readers raise their 
voices in a marked degree when they read. Before the test began, 
the experimenter talked for a time with the subject so that the 
natural tone of voice might be observed, and a low grade was given 
if the voice was raised above th& natural tone. 

Articulation refers to the accuracy with which the difl&cult 
sounds are produced, while pronunciation refers to completeness 
and correctness of the enunciation of the word, such as the sounding 
of a final s or ing. 

Emphasis refers to the stress which is put on certain words or 
phrases to make the meaning clear, while force refers to the amount 
of energy which is put into the reading as a whole. 

' These points were selected from a large unpublished list which has been worked 
out by Professor J. Carleton Bell, of the Brooklyn Trainmg School for Teachers. 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 19 



Interpretation, as used here, refers to the ability of the reader 
to show by emphasis, inflection, pauses, etc., that the meaning of 
the author is appreciated. 

After this preliminary discussion of the tests and the technique 
of giving them, we may now pass to a discussion of the results. 
Tables III and IV give typical results for two boys from the sixth 

TABLE III 

Record of B. R. in Oral Reading 

Age, 13 years 2 months Grade 6 Sex, Boy 



Selection 



Repetitions 



Insertions 



Omissions 



Mispronun- 
ciations 



Total Errors 



Time 

in Seconds and 

Minutes and 

Seconds 



Rate: Words 
per Second 



Prose 



I. . 

















:iS 


3-2 


2. . 

















:i9 


2.6 


3-- 


2 











2 


:22 


2.7 


4- • 


2 





I 





3 


:2s 


2.4 


5-- 


I 











I 


:29 


2.1 


6.. 


2 


I 


I 


I 


S 


:29 


2.1 


7-- 


I 


I 





I 


3 


•.30 


1.8 


8. . 











5 


S 


:4o 


1:3 


9.. 











2 


2 


:So 


I.O 


10. . 


2 





I 


4 


7 


:4o 


I.I 


II. . 











9 


9 


•so 


0.9 


12. . 











9 


9 


1:02 


0.6 


Tot 


al 10 


2 


3 


31 


46 


6:si 









Poetry 



2. . . . 

3 

4 



2 
2 












3 
7 
6 


3 
9 
8 


1:22 
1:20 
3:09 


1.6 

1-3 

0.8 


Total 


4 








16 


20 


5:51 









Oratory 



2 








8 


10 



2:38 



Poise, F 
Pitch, G 
Articulation, F 



Pronunciation, P 
Emphasis, F 



Force, F 
Interpretation, P 



grade whose records in Table II, p. 15, show that B. R. (No. 26) 
does his best work in the handicrafts, while W. E. (No. 31) does 



20 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



his poorest work in the handicrafts. Most of the classifications 
used in Tables III and IV are clear, and it need only be said that 
the rate is given in the number of words read per second. 



TABLE IV 
Record of W. E. in Oral Reading 
Age, 13 years 3 months Grade 6 Sex, Boy 



Selection 



Repetitions 


Insertions 


Omissions 


Mispronun- 
ciations 


Total Errors 



Time 

in Seconds and 

Minutes and 

Seconds 



Rate: Words 
per Second 



Prose 



I. . . 

















:i2 


4.0 


2. . . 

















: II 


4-4 


3-- • 

















:i3 


4.6 


4. . . 

















••IS 


41 


5- •• 


I 











I 


:i6 


3-9 


6... 

















:i6 


3-9 


7... 











I 


I 


:i6 


2,3 


8... 

















:i7 


3-2 


9. .. 


I 








2 


3 


:i7 


30 


10. . . 


2 








3 


5 


:2i 


2.2 


II. . . 











I 


I 


:i8 


2.6 


12. . . 


I 








I 


2 


:23 


1.6 


Tot< 


il 5 








8 


13 


3:15 









Poetry 



2. . . . 


I 








2 


3 


:4o 


2,Z 


3 


I 








2 


3 


141 


2-5 


4 








I 





I 


:56 


2.6 


Total 


2 





I 


4 


7 


2:17 









Oratory 



I o I 3 5 



2.6 



Poise, G 
Pitch, P 
Articulation, F 



Pronunciation, F 
Emphasis, F 



Force, F 
Interpretation, P 



A comparison of the two records shows that W. E. reads about 
twice as fast as B. R. and with only half as many repetitions. By 
referring to the original material from which Table III was com- 
piled, it is found that B. R. makes two kinds of repetitions: First, 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 21 

he repeats several rather difficult words, such as "hesitated" and 
''scarcely." This probably means that he is not quite satisfied 
with his first pronunciation and so makes a second trial. Secondly, 
he repeats a considerable number of very easy words, such as "as" 
and "queen," even in so simple an expression as "spoke 'as' of 
old." This second type of repetition is much more difficult to 
explain, but it is probably due to lapses of attention — that is, the 
reader loses himself for the moment, and the repetition of a single 
word helps him to get under way again. 

When the repetitions of W. E. are considered, it is found that he, 
too, repeats certain difficult words occurring in phrases, as "in such 
exigencies." This indicates that he comes to the difficult word, 
hesitates, takes a close look at it, then goes back and reads the 
phrase again. In some cases he pronounces the word correctly 
on second trial, and in others he makes no improvement. He also 
repeats such single difficult words as "profusion," but in no case 
does he repeat single simple words. The experiments to be reported 
in later chapters will throw further light on the difference between 
these two pupils. 

A comparison of the records for omissions and insertions shows 
a slight advantage in favor of W. E. The omissions may either 
be due to lapses of attention on the part of B. R. or it may be 
that his eye-movements are of such a nature that words are 
missed. Such errors may be due to the fact that the attention 
moves so much faster than the voice that words are forgotten. 
In some cases the insertions are such as to make good sense, 
while in other cases the expression with the inserted word means 
little or nothing. The explanation of the latter type of error 
may lie in the fact that the phrase meant Httle in the first 
place, and the inserted word therefore did not change it for the 
reader. 

The greatest contrast between the two subjects is found in the 
number of mispronunciations. This indicates clearly that the 
slow reader does not have the control of language which the rapid 
reader has. If the records for poetry and oratory are compared, 
it is found that the advantage rests with W. E. in all points except 
that of omissions. 



22 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



o 










ea 










p^ 










J, a 










S 3 










32 


HC^(^MMMC«HM 


MOMMMHHM 


MMMMWMMW 


M PI M <M CM M N 


.go 










d 




















§ 










a 

■«£ 
tola 


00 in CO c» H cooo C30 fO 


<N rfoo NO 00 t^ O 00 


ONOCOO<MOON^~ 


NO CO On CO t^NO M 


1 T T V T T T 1 T 


mmOOOOmO 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


mOmmmmOO 

1 r 1 1 1 1 1 r 

00 m cooO ir> cooo « 


O M O M M M M 

I I 1 1 I 1 ) 


gt^ 
rt 


lo (^00 Tj- CO r^ On t^ l^ 


00 CO r^OO OnnO « :^ 


M r^oo t^ t^NO -rf 


MPO^ro««MwM 


CO'^COCS <N M POCNI 


cococo'^co'tcoco 


CO CO CO CO CO •* CO 


i 

w 


O O fOOO Tfoo O J~» w 


M mnooOOOnO OnO 


NO COM M r^co^^o 


NO On N NO On CO Ov 


io«<sp»POM<Nincr) 


'i-co'i-cococovoTt 


C^ ■*-*'+CO-<tCM •>+ 


Tf lO CM CO M M CO 


o 










H 










__^ 










'o 




















c a 


On O r^ PO •<4- t^ H roO 


NOOO CM ONTft-»ONC^ 


lOOoO coo On'4-co 


M On On On «M 00 "* 




MM MM MM 


OIMrOCSCN)N<Nfl 


MCOCNICSCOCMMCO 


CO CO M M M CM 


■xj 










s 










at 










a 










o 




















'1 


•>1- "t M •* »0 CCOO O ■* 


0>iO»OM iocoo>t>- 


Ttcoto^HVO ■^co 


CO •<+ <M NO c^ O O 


B 


M 






M 


O 










s 










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u* 


CO w O CO 0> CO rj- OnO 


c^e)MOcOMir>iO 


OcmnnOmioOP* 


CM lO O -+ O O M 


a 










t-t 










tft 










a 










.2 










■*-» 










'■*J 


CO to r^oo O »o t>. \r)\o 


'4-nO 00 00 no vo t>. cm 


tN.00 NO 00 to CO l~» t>- 


O M M t^ 1/5 lO Tf 


CL 


CO W M Cl 


M 




W M 


4) 










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dli 


t>-00 Oi On lO t^ r^-O vO 


c^nOmooOmO 


C<MMr<MC^C<M 


PI C< CM M CM C< CM 


ll-S 




M M M M M MM 






C/3 




















^ 










^a> 


M N CO 't i/JNO t^OO On 


O M CM CO ^ VONO t>. 


00ONOM<NCO'*tO 


VO t^OO On O M CM 


2 






MMWC<CSCMC>)M 


N « C^ CS CO CO CO 


CO 






































•o 


















ni 


















b 


















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5 


"^ 


h 


1/ 


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NO 





TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 23 



re 00 00 0» "^ r^O 


•>4- cs 000 « 0» t^ w \0 


O\M00 M I^M 0^t«^ 


mhOOwOmmm 

1 1 r r 1 1 1 1 1 

0\ lO t^ r^>0 vO f) w I-I 


MMOtHCqi-iMW«w 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
« iH t^oo •<4- fCO t-^ •* 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Tj-00 »o 00 O^ w 


cO«5c*>rO'^rC'*'<t'* 


\n-^rr>ri-in-^-^rr>-uT^ 


lO'^ttTj-Tj-'t'^lO 



POfSwWfOPf'^HfJP) C)roP<t*>NfO^<« 



t^ t^ O i>100 Tj- ro to 



toro^MiOt^cOPJO 00«OOiht}-mnOO OOmOOOhM 



NTj-MWHTfMI-IC) ot^i-ii-iOtOO^t-iM TflOOOfOW'-'lO 



•O rf 10 O 00 Ov t^ "il-OO « t~.\0 r^c»5«fOO'P'r>. O*fO^0t^<Of5MO\ 



NC)C»MN^>P)Nr< NN<SMMP<f^MMM ^^^1C^M<M^^^^« 



o 



24 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

The two readers show much the same characteristics whether 
reading prose or poetry. Indeed, as will be seen from the long table 
including many subjects, the chief difference which results from a 
variation of the type of reading matter is a difference in rate. 

It is interesting to compare the grades in the elements of oral 
reading listed at the bottom of the two tables. In most instances 
these grades are the same for both subjects. It is also true that 
most of the grades are either F or P. This can only mean that the 
school fails to emphasize the particular virtues called for or else 
that the training of the school has been futile in the case of these 
subjects. 

Table V is a general table made up from individual records like 
those shown in Tables III and IV and presents only the results from 
the prose passages in William S. Gray's scale. The double column 
next to the last at the extreme right shows the highest and lowest 
rates attained on any one selection. The different subjects are 
grouped in grades, as indicated by the horizontal lines, and are 
numbered according to their alphabetical order within each grade. 
Some of the subjects did not read all the selections. The number 
read by each subject is indicated in the third vertical column. 

In order to facilitate a comparison of rate and accuracy, all the 
persons reported in Table V are regrouped according to the mini- 
mum rates which they exhibited in reading any passage. The first 
group contains the persons who have a minimum rate of i word 
per second or less. The second group contains all persons who have 
a minimum rate between i . i and 2 words per second ; the third, 
those having a minimum between 2 . i and 3 words per second. 
The first column at the left in Table V A indicates these groups. 
The third column gives the number of subjects in each group; the 
fourth shows the school grades which have representatives in the 
various groups; the fifth shows the range in the maximum rate 
attained by individuals in each group, and the last shows the range 
in total errors made by each group. 

A consideration of this table leads to the following comments: 
The maximum rates follow in general the minimum rates. Group 2 
being much faster than Group i, and Group 3 being at a higher 
level than Group 2, although the upper limits of the last two 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 



25 



groups are the same. The table shows also that the greatest num- 
ber of errors is made by Group i. The most striking difference is 
the very marked reduction of errors in Group 3 as compared with 
Group 2. 

TABLE VA 
Summary of Table V on the Basis of Range in Minimum Rate 



Minimum- 
Rate Groups 


Range in 
Minimum Rate 


No. in Group 


Grades 


Range in 
Maximum Rate 


Range in Total 
Errors 


I 

2 


0.6-1.0 
I. 1-2.0 
2.1-3.0 


23 
29 

7 


3, 4, 5, 6, 7, H.S. 
3,4,5,6,7,H.S.,C. 
H.S., C. 


1.7-4.8 

2.3-5.4 
4.0-5.4 


20-60 
7-59 
3-15 


3 



A consideration of the grades represented in the different groups 
shows that Group i contains no college students, Group 2 has one 
or more individuals from each of the grades, while Group 3 includes 
only persons from the high school and college. 

Another interesting point is brought out in the large range of 
errors in Group 2. Such a fact indicates that those who read at a 
medium rate are not at all settled in their reading habits, for some 
of them read poorly and others read with a considerable degree of 
efficiency. The practical significance of this fact is that the type of 
reading indicated in Group 2 is probably characteristic of the transi- 
tion period in the child's reading, and during this period training 
should be most painstaking and intelligent. 

To return to Table V and a more detailed consideration of the 
errors made, it will be noted that in forty-eight cases the largest 
number of errors is made in the pronouncing of words. The excep- 
tions are found in the third grade and in the best readers of the high 
school or college, where repetitions are more numerous than mis- 
pronunciations. In the third grade this means that the child has 
better control of his visual vocabulary than he has of the other 
phases of reading. Among the high-school and college students 
where these exceptions are found, the number of errors of each type 
is relatively small. This probably means that training has reached 
the point where the subject is equally proficient in the different 
aspects of the reading process. 

The results for omissions, repetitions, insertions, mispronuncia- 
tions, and total errors are shown in the form of distribution curves 



26 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



in Diagrams i, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Each rectangle represents one sub- 
ject, and the height of the rectangles represents the number of 
errors. An examination of these diagrams reveals very clearly the 
fact that, except in the matter of errors in pronunciation, one 



i 



i 



mf 



Grade 3d 



4th 5th 6th 7th H.S. 

DiAGHAM I. — Distributioa of repetitions 



rrfrf 



j£m 



rm l mrrfrml ^xTrill _jJI 



Grade 



3d 



4th sth 6th 7th 

Diagram 2. — Distribution of insertions 



H.S. 



If-, 

JO. 








n 






.: i 


c 


. c 


[Tfl 


. (£ 


rr 


rrf 



Grade 3d 



4th sth 6th 7th 

Diagram 3. — Distribution of omissions 



H.S. 



school grade is not very different from any other. To illus- 
trate, the niunber of insertions made by the fifth grade does not 
dififer materially from the number of insertions made by the 
fourth grade. Evidently training is effective only in a very 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 27 



J d 



cd 



Grade 3d 



4th sth 6th 7th H.S. 

Diagram 4. — Distribution of mispronunciations 






Grade 3d 



4th sth 6th 7th H.S. 

Diagram 5. — Distribution of total errors 



28 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



t a 
.S-2 



H«5roMtSM<SpqM C<>PO<>>NMMMe< MWM0«t»5COMN 






O O N lO <N «s M moo OvOt^MOMOsW OP)cqvOOOi!oii 

hcscoc^hnWhh e^pr5H^^^HMl-lM NMNiNMMtrjN 



o 2 
h-3 



t>.Ti-WHt^(NOONOO OOTfO •^O O ID w 00 \0 fOOO c*2 H 00 00 



P^ 



cOioOt-i'*'*NPO-+ tOHc^^ONHM'^ H00\00«~)0e» 



TtTj-MH->^-^POt^N OMhOwhhn OOM<NOf<0 



HMMT^NvOC^M-* Mro io\0 -^MrOO NOcOMiNOrOfO 



NO)<NrOHN(NHM rorOrOrOWCSfOt^ wjrOPOfCfCfOfJtO 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 29 



MC*)rOfOfOfOcO MNMMCOWoofOCO tOfOf<<0'<l-cOf<iMTtfO POfO'*<0'<*-Tj-rCfO 



00 


PO CO 


M 


Tj- ir, 


w 


00 00 


t^ vO 00 


CO 00 


c< 





t>- 





0\ covO 


t^ 


CO 


M 


t^ 


Ov O^ P< 


I/O M 


H 


vO 


t>. 


? 


N 


M 


M 


fA 


(N 


PI 


M 


M 


M C< 


P) 


H 


<N 


Cl 


CO 




M 


M CO C) 


M 


M 


? 





M W CO 

JoU 


M CO CO 


CI 


M 


i 


1 1 

CO •* 


i 


covO 


M 


M 


CO 10 


i 





■*•<*• CO 


Ht 


vi 


i. 4-ii-^ 


■* 


M 


M 00 


6 


■Si-4t 


M 


CO CO 


W 


CO CO 


c» 


CO 


P) 


M M 


CO 


M 


CO CO CO 


■<1- CO 


CJ 


xj- Tt- CO CO 


<N 


•* CO 


Tj-T}-Tl-coco-<tcoco 



OM>of^"lt^i-i O vooo CO O O 00 coo MTfM O^coioiocit^ON oO^OPir^Oi-" O"^ 

CICOM HMHMCICO W PI '^ " '^ " 



vo t^\0 O O ■^'O CO i-i vo uo\o r^HCivO c<hM\OMcop<0>0>-i W'^wmsoOOOO 



OioOOcomO TtOOP<OcoMO<^ OOMOO^wOOh OOOOcoOOM 



OMOoooo '1-HMOO'tMoco oo<NOOoO'*OM 00000000 



Tj-t^O^c^f^iO lOCOMvO ■^O CO HI 10 O co^O cowOf^^w*^ r>.MwiOWi-iO 



cocoMMcococo cococococococococo cocococococococococo cocococococococo 



vO r^oo o O H <N CO ■* l/^\0 t-~oO O O w M co •* >oO t^oo Ov O w M co ■* lovo f^oO O; 
CI d c5 « CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO '^ •* ■* tJ- tJ- tj- ^t •*■*•* <o "^ JO to lO lO lo >o lo >o 



O 



30 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



limited degree in preventing omissions, repetitions, and insertions, 
but is effective in preventing or correcting mispronunciations and 
hence also total errors. The explanation is either that the items 
which show little improvement get no attention in school or else 
that they are not so easily open to effects of training. It would 
be exceedingly interesting to set up experiments for the purpose of 
discovering whether repetitions, omissions, and insertions are more 
difficult to eliminate than mispronunciations. Until such experi- 
ments are tried, it will be difficult to decide whether the teacher 
should attempt to correct all classes of errors by instruction or 
should wait for maturity to do the work. 

Table VI contains the same type of result for poetry that is 
given in Table V for prose. In connection with this table the 
following comments may be made: 

1. The predominating error is mispronunciation, as it was in 
prose. 

2. The predominating error of subjects Nos. i, 51, and 55 is 
repetition, as was true in prose, but subjects Nos. 3, 6, 8, and 52 
change their predominating error from repetitions in prose to mis- 
pronunciations in poetry. 

3. The predominating error for subjects Nos. i, 43, 51, and 57 
is repetition, while in the case of Nos. 48 and 54 repetitions are 
equal in number to mispronunciations. In the case of Nos. 2, 7, 
and 30 omissions, insertions, and omissions, respectively, are made 
more often than any other type. 

TABLE VI A 
SxMMARY or Table VI on the Basis of Range in Minimum Rate 



Minimum- 
Rate Groups 


_ Range in 
Minimum Rate 


No. in Group 


Grades 


Range in 
Maximum Rate 


Range in Total 
Errors 


I 


. 8-1 . 
I. 1-2.0 
2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 


3 
24 

27 
5 


3,4,6 

3, 4, S, 7, H.S. 

3,4,S,6,7,H.S.,C. 

H.S., C. 


I.O-I-6 
I - 6-3 - 2 
2.4-4-3 
3-8-4-4 


20-37 


2 


8-42 


3 


0-42 


4 


I-IO 







Table VI is summarized in Table VI A. The only point which 
needs to be emphasized here is that the two medium-rate groups, 
2 and 3, have very large ranges in the number of errors made. 

Table VII and VII A follow with the same type of results for 
oratory. No new point which needs to be emphasized comes out 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 31 



TABLE VII 
Record of All Subjects in Oral Reading of Oratory 



Grade 


Subject 


Repetitions 


Insertions 


Omissions 


Mispro- 
nunci- 
ations 


Total 
Errors^ 


Rate 


Group 




10 








2 


10 


12 


2.0 


2 




II 


6 





2 


6 


14 


2-5 


3 




12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 
















4 











15 


15 


0.9 


I 




















I 


I 


5 


19 


■"26" 


1-3 


2 




17 


4 








19 


23 


I.O 


I 




■ 18 











8 


8 


i-S 


2 




19 


2 








14 


16 


0.6 


I 




20 


4 





2 


18 


24 


1.6 


2 


5 


21 


I 


I 


3 


6 


II 


1.6 


2 


22 











12 


12 


1.8 


2 




23 








3 


12 


15 


2.0 


2 




24 


I 


I 


I 


2 


5 


1.9 


2 




I 25 


I 








18 


19 


0.9 


I 




■ 26 


2 








8 


10 


1.0 


I 




27 


3 





2 


5 


10 


1.9 


2 




28 


I 





I 


7 


9 


2.0 


2 


6 


29 


I 








7 


8 


1.9 


2 




30 


2 





2 


4 


8 


2.4 


3 




31 


I 





I 


3 


5 


2.6 


3 




I 32 











9 


9 


1.9 


2 




33 


3 


I 


2 


8 


14 


2.0 


2 




34 











4 


4 


1.6 


2 




35 


I 








4 


5 


1-7 


2 




36 











5 


5 


1.9 


2 


7 


37 








I 


8 


9 


2.0 


2 




38 


I 


I 


9 


10 


21 


1.6 


2 




39 


2 


I 


I 


8 


12 


2.2 


3 




40 


I 


I 





5 


7 


2-5 


3 




I 41 


2 





3 


5 


10 


2-3 


3 




42 


3 








I 


4 


3-4 


4 




43 


4 





I 


3 


8 


2.7 


3 




44 


2 








8 


10 


1.6 


2 




45 


I 








3 


4 


2.8 


3 


H.S.... 


46 


I 


I 





I 


3 


3-2 


4 




47 








I 


I 


2 


2.6 


3 




48 











3 


3 


2.4 


3 




49 





I 





16 


17 


0.9 


I 




SO 


3 











3 


3-2 


4 




I 51 


I 





I 


2 


4 


2.7 


3 




52 


I 








5 


6 


30 


3 




53 


I 








2 


3 


2.9 


3 




54 











2 


2 


31 


4 


c 


55 


4 








I 


5 


2.4 


3 




56 


3 


I 





2 


6 


31 


4 




57 





I 





3 


4 


2.7 


3 




58 


I 


I 





5 


7 


30 


3 




I 59 


I 








6 


7 


2.6 


3 



32 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



in these tables. A comparison of the different rates for the reading 
of different types of material will be made at the end of the chapter. 

TABLE VII A 
Summary of Table VII on the Basis of Range in Minimum Rate 



Minimum-Rate 
Groups 


Range in Minimum 
Rate 


Number in Group 


Grades 


Range in Total 
Errors 


I 

2 


o . 6-1 . o 

I.I-2.0 

2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 


' 6 

19 

17 

5 


4, S, 6, H.S. 
4,5,6, 7, H.S. 
4, 6, 7,H.S., C. 
H.S., C. 


10-23 
4-26 


■2. 


2-14 


4 


2- 6 







Table VIII shows the grades given on the various phases of 
oral reading. In connection with this table the following points 
may be noted: 

1. The highest grade, E, is not used. 

2. Three pupils, Nos. 13, 30, and 40, receive either G or G+ 
for each of the points in the list. 

3. Nine pupils are not graded above F+ in any item. Among 
these is No. 57, who makes only eight errors. On the other hand, 
the pupil who makes the most errors, No. 49, is not graded above P. 

4. The scores are somewhat higher in the upper grades than in 
the lower grades. 

This table gives in detail the Justification for the remark made 
in connection with the records of B. R. and W. E. that the 
practices of the school with regard to instruction in the different 
phases of reading need careful consideration and experimental 
study. 

SILENT-READING TESTS 

The silent-reading tests were carried on along several lines. 
The passages for the different lines of tests were selected from the 
same readers and were chosen to be as nearly comparable as possible. 
The method of testing efficiency, however, was varied. In the first 
case the reader was asked to answer set questions. In the second, 
he reproduced freely what he had read. In the third case he was 
asked to outline the main points. Fourthly, he was asked to read 
as fast as possible. 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 33 

SILENT READING FOR THE PURPOSE OF ANSWERING QUESTIONS 

The first method used in testing silent reading was that of requir- 
ing the subject to read certain selected passages and to write the 
answers to questions based on the selection read. Ten prose selec- 
tions were used, and five questions were asked on each. The tenth 
selection was read by adults only. In all other cases the pupils 
read as many of the selections as they were able to read. Selec- 
tions 1-9 were taken from the ''Riverside Series" of readers, which 
included a primer and a reader for each of the eight grades and 
were so selected that they represented increasing difiiculties. 

In addition to the prose selections four short poems were read. 
Third-grade pupils did not read the last two selections of poetry, 
while all the other subjects omitted the first selection. Five ques- 
tions were asked on each poem. 

The answers were scored for full credit, half-credit, or no credit. 
One of the prose selections used, together with the questions, follows: 

Selection 3 

On the steep hillside grew a tall ash tree. Right on the bank of the rushing 
brook it grew. Its branches spread far out across the little stream. Its leaves 
looked down into the flashing water. There, when the sun shone brightly, 
they saw leaves looking up at them. They called these "water leaves." 

1 . Where did the ash tree grow ? 

2. How far did its branches spread? 

3. Where did the leaves look? 

4. What did they see when the sun shone ? 

5. What did they call these leaves ? 

Tables IX and X give the records of B. R. and W. E., the same 
pupils whose reports are given in Tables III and IV. An examina- 
tion of the tables shows that: 

1. B. R. reads silently about one-third as fast as W. E. 

2. B. R. attempts seven-tenths as many questions as W. E. 

3. B. R. answers correctly 8^ per cent of the questions at- 
tempted, while W. E, answers correctly 72 per cent of those 
attempted. 

4. B. R. falls below W. E. in answering questions by about 
one- tenth. 



34 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



o 





tn 


Ov O CCOO ■^00 O t^ « 


H HvOOOOOVD OVD 


VO fO M M 


t^ CO >0 lO 


£S 


ioW««c<5<N«^»'>««5 


TfcO'+«*5COc<5>0'* 


« ■*-*-*co-*« •* 


hS 










a 










o 




















rt 










1 


Ah fe fn O fL, fa O Ph fn 


AnAnP-iOAHAHfaP-i 


fa Ah fa Ah Ah Ah fa Ah 




§ 


PHA4faO(Xifafap^pui 


1 
faOPnOfafaAiPH 


1 

fafafafaOfaOfa 




£ 




. 










1 


1 + 




J 


fa p^ fa O fe fe O fiH Ah 


OfafaOfafafafa 


fafafafafafaOfa 


o 

2 


E 








H 










■J 


§ 








o 


c3 

3 


AHOOOAHOOAHfa 


AnfafaOfafafafa 


fafafafafaOOfa 


O 
H 


y 
(ii 








§ 


a 








a 


.2 










< 


fH Ah Pi O fa A^ Ah fa fa 


AnfafaOPifaOfa 


PlHflHfafafaOOfa 




% 


feOOfafaOfaOfa 


OfaOOfaOfaO 


+ 1 

fafeOfaOfaOO 




s 










V 


ft, fiH O fa fa O O Ah fa 


OfafaOOOOO 


+ 1 

fefufinOfafaOfa 




Ah 








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W M C<^ Tj- VOVO r^OO On 


O w t^ rO -rt- »OvO t>> 


OOOnOmncO'^io 


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M 














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< 














Pi 














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TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 35 



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O^ CO Ov 

M M CO 




CO ir> 000 r^ 00 ^ 

M CS H( M M \0 t^ 


10 Tj- C« 
W M M W 


00 r^ O* 

N 01 


Oh CU >PL, Pti Cti 


+ 

(1. P- Ch Ps Ph fa 


+ 1+1 1 

OfafafafaOfafaOO 


faOCfafafaOfa 


fafeOfeOfaO 


fa fa CL, fa fa fa fa 


1 1 

fafafaOfafafafafafa 


faCfafafafaOfa 


+ 


fafafafafafafaCC 


+ 

fafafaOOOOfaOO 


faOfafafafaOfa 


&, t^ a, fe fa fii 


1 1 ++ 

faOOfafafaOOO 


1 + 1 + 

OOfaOOfaOfaOfa 


faOfaOfafafafa 


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fafaCL,faOfafa 


+ + 

fafaOfafafafaOO 


1 

OfafaOOfaOfaOfa 


fafaOCfafaOfa 


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OfeOOOfuO 


+ 1 + 

OOOOOOfaOfa 


+ + + ++ 

faOfaOOfaOfaOO 


1 

OOOOOfaCO 


fefaOOOOO 


1 + 

OOOfaOOOOO 


+ ++ 

OOfafaCOfafaOO 


OOOOOfaOO 


NO t^OO l-l <N 
cs « M w PO r<0 CO 


m ■* \ri\o t^oo 0\ M 
fOcOcOcOPOrocO't'^ 














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36 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



5. B. R. requires a little more than 36 seconds in which to answer 
each question attempted, while W. E. requires 28 seconds. 

TABLE IX 
Record of B. R. in Silent Reading of Prose for Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Time for 
Writing 


I 


:i4 
:22 

•33 
•37 

•52 

1:04 

1:12 
1:46 


2.9 
2.1 

1.6 
1.9 

1-3 

I.O 

1-3 

0.8 

0.8 


5 
5 
4 
5 
3 
4 
2 

3 
3 


4 "^ 


1:15 


2 


4 
3 

4 
3 
3 

I 
I 
2 


S 
S 
5 


5 
5 
5 


1:23 


2 


2:03 


4 


3:30 


e 


1:53 


6 


1:53 


7 


1:31 


8 


2:48 





2:19 








Total 


7:27 




34 


28.? 


18:35 













TABLE X 
Record of W. E. in Silent Re.^ding of Prose for Answering Questions 



Sdection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Time for 
Writing 


I 


:o8 
:i2 
:i6 

:i7 
:i4 
:i4 
:2i 
: 12 
•35 


3-9 
3-4 
4-1 
5-6 
4.6 

30 
5-0 
2.5 


5 
5 
S 
S 
5 
5 
5 
S 
5 


30 
30 
S-O 
3-5 
4.0 

2.5 
4.0 

4-5 
30 


1:52 


2 


2:12 


2 


1:42 


A 


3:20 


c 


3:32 


6 


4:05 


7 


1:39 


8 


2:25 





2:15 






TotaL... 


2:29 




45 


32. 5 


23:02 







It is evident that B. R. is not as efficient as W. E. in silent read- 
ing. The greater difference appears in speed rather than in the 
number of questions answered. By comparing Tables III and IX 
it will be seen that B. R.'s rate is slightly higher in oral than in 
silent reading. It may be that, in his haste to reduce some of the 
very apparent slowness and jerkiness in his reading, he runs over 
many words without giving them the proper attention and there- 
fore makes additional errors in oral reading. 

Table XI presents totals for all subjects. The percentage of 
questions correct is based upon the total number of questions 
asked on the selections read, or five questions to each selection. 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 37 



TABLE XI 
Record of All Subjects in Silent Reading of Prose for Answering 

QlTESTIONS 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in 
Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Questions 
Attempted 


Writing 
Time 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 




I 


7 


3I-I-3 


2 


32 


7:23 


45-7 




2 


7 


4 


S-2.S 


3 


20 


5:31 


40.0 




3 


6 


3 


6-2.1 


3 


23 


6:13 


41-7 




4 


7 


4 


1-2.2 


3 


29 


10:22 


61.4 


3 


5 


5 


I 


9-1-5 


2 


20 


4:44 


64.0 




6 


6 


3 


3-1-9 


2 


17 


7:04 


S5-0 




7 


6 


5 


8-2.5 


3 


30 


7:12 


750 




8 


6 


I 


9-0.8 


I 


28 


7:37 


60.0 




9 


4 


2 


5-1-9 


2 


19 


5:37 


S5-0 




10 


9 


3 


1-1.7 


2 


44 


25:17 


56.6 




II 


9 


2 


7-1.6 


2 


45 


19:09 


67.8 




12 


9 


3 


0-1.6 


2 


45 


18:57 


62.2 


4 


13 


7 


2 


4-1-3 


2 


26 


15:09 


64-3 




14 


8 


3 


4-1-5 


2 


34 


16:05 


51-2 




15 


8 


2 


2-1.0 


I 


23 


13:39 


38.7 




16 


9 


2 


9-0.9 


I 


45 


36:05 


63.3 




. 17 


9 


2 


0-1.2 


2 


44 


40:28 


42.2 




■ 18 


9 


3 


1-1.7 


2 


45 


13:45 


58-9 




19 


9 


2 


9-1. 2 


2 


29 


16:49 


56.7 




20 


9 


3 


1-1.2 


2 


42 


19:53 


55-5 


s 


21 


9 


3 


5-1-5 


2 


35 


30:39 


75-5 




22 


9 


2 


3^-8 


I 


39 


40:51 


62.2 




23 


9 


3 


8-1.4 


2 


39 


22:53 


53-3 




24 


9 


4 


1-2. 1 


3 


41 


21:50 


74-4 




I 25 


9 


3 


0-1.2 


2 


45 


35:00 


52.2 




■ 26 


9 


2 


9-0.8 


I 


34 


18:35 


633 




27 


9 


5 


3-1-8 


2 


45 


25:27 


66.6 




28 


9 


3 


7-1-3 


2 


37 


15:30 


57.8 


6 


29 


9 


4 


1-2. 1 


3 


37 


14:53 


52.2 




30 


9 


6 


0-4-3 


5 


43 


16:26 


72.2 




31 


9 


5 


6-2.5 


3 


45 


23:02 


72. 2 




I 32 


9 


4 


6-1.6 


2 


44 


17:41 


76.6 




33 


9 


4 


1-2. 5 


3 


44 


13:21 


72. 2 




34 


9 


3 


4-1-3 


2 


43 


14:08 


65-5 




35 


9 


3 


0-1.9 


2 


44 


18:19 


46.6 




36 


9 


3 


4-1.9 


2 


44 


17:12 


74-4 


7 


37 


9 


4 


1-1.6 


2 


40 


17:04 


74-4 




38 


9 


5 


9-2.0 


2 


39 


11:44 


72.2 




39 


9 


5 


9-2.8 


3 


33 


7:48 


62.2 




40 


9 


4 


6-2.4 


3 


38 


14:57 


71. 1 




I 41 


9 


3 


5-2.1 


3 


43 


18:20 


76.6 




42 


10 


4 


9-2.5 


3 


45 


9:23 


81.0 




43 


10 


6 


5-3-5 


4 


48 


9:37 


63.0 




44 


10 


4 


7-2.0 


2 


49 


16:08 


S9-0 




45 


10 


3 


9-2.6 


3 


48 


12:50 


7S-0 


H.S 


46 


10 


4 


6-1.9 


2 


47 


14:10 


86.0 




47 


10 


6 


5-3-3 


4 


42 


15:32 


61.0 




48 


10 


4 


1-1.8 


2 


49 


16:05 


86.0 




49 


5 


3 


1-1.4 


2 


13 


5:03 


48.0 




50 


10 


5 


1-2. 1 


3 


47 


12:23 


67.0 




I 51 


10 


4 


6-2.1 


3 


46 


15:48 


63.0 



38 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

TABLE XL— Continued 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in 
Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Questions 
Attempted 


Writing 
Time 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 


c 


52 

53 
54 

H 
S6 

57 

58 

I 59 


lO 

lo 

lO 
lO 
lO 
lO 
lO 
lO 


8.2-3 
8.2-3 
8.2-3 

4.1-2 

6.8-3 

IO.O-3 

6.8-3 

6.0-2 


8 

I 
4 
4 
3 
6 
I 
8 


4 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 


37 
47 
43 
39 
31 

28 

49 

44 


5:23 

14:38 

9:05 

12:33 

8:17 

5:14 

9:09 

14:49 


42.0 
82.0 
53-0 
57-0 
23.0 
40.0 
63.0 
S3-0 



TABLE XI A 
Summary of Table XI on the Basis of Range in Minimum Rate 



Group 


Range in 

Minimum 

Rate 


No. in 
Group 


Grades 


Range in 

Maximum 

Rate 


Range in No. 
of Questions 
Attempted 


Range in 

Percentage of 

Questions 

Correct 


Range in 
Writing Time 


I 

2 

3..-- 

4.... 
5-..- 


0.8-1.0 
I. 1-2.0 
2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 
4.1-5.0 


5 
28 

17 
8 

I 


3,4,5,6 

3,4, 5,6, 7, H.S. 

3,5,6,7,H.S.,C. 

H.S., C. 

6 


1.9- 2.9 

1-9- 5-9 
3.6- 6.0 
6.5-10.0 
6.0 


28-45 
13-49 
20-48 
28-49 
43 


60.0-63.3 
42.2-86.0 
40.0-81.0 
23.0-82.0 
72.2 


7:37-40:51 
4:44-40:28 
5:31-23:02 
5:14-15:32 
16:26 



Table XI A, which rearranges the subjects into groups according 
to minimum rates, reveals the following points: 

1. The minimum rates vary from 0.8 to 5 .0 words per second, 
while the maximum rates vary from i .9 to 10 .0 words per second. 

2. The minimum rates for Groups 4 and 5 are greater than the 
maximum rates for Group i. 

3. The upper limit of the number of questions attempted varies 
only from forty- three to forty-nine. 

4. The range in the number of questions attempted by Groups i 
and 4 differs only by four. 

5. The widest range in the number of questions attempted is 
shown in Group 2. 

6. The upper limit of the percentage of questions correct differs 
only five points in Groups 2, 3, and 4. 

7. The wide range in the percentage of questions correct in 
Group 4 evidently means that some persons in the group read too 
fast to be efiicient. The very slight difference in the efi&ciency of 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 39 

Groups 2 and 3 indicates clearly that reading to answer questions 
requires a certain technique which the more rapid readers in Group 3 
have not developed in any greater degree than those in Group 2, 
who do not read so rapidly. 

8. There is a decided decrease in the upper limits of the time 
required for writing if Groups 2, 3, and 4 are considered. If the 
lower limits of writing time are considered, the difference is not 
very great. These variations in writing time are due to several 
causes. The time is in some cases short because there is little 
written. But the reduction in amount has very different meanings 
in different cases. In the case of subject No. 5 little is written 
because little is retained, while in the case of No. 42 the material 
written is very much condensed. The longer times are sometimes 
due to a slow rate of writing, sometimes to answers which are longer 
than necessary, sometimes, as in the cases of No. 22 and No. 17, 
to the fact that time is wasted. 



TABLE XII 
Record of B. R. in Silent Reading of Poetry for Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Time for 
Writing 


2 

z 


1:30 
1:24 
2:25 


I. 2 

1-4 
1.0 


5 

2 
2 


45 
2.0 
1.0 


2:47 
2: 12 


4 


2:54 




Total.... 


5:19 




9 


7-5 


7:53 







TABLE XIII 
Record of W. E. in Silent Reading of Poetry for Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Time for 
Writing 


2 


:33 

= 35 

1:18 


3-3 
3-4 
1.8 


5 
5 
5 


4.0 
30 
1.0 


1:39 
2:39 

1:45 


7 


A 




Total .... 


2:26 




IS 


8.0 


6:03 









Tables XII and XIII give the records in poetry for B. R. and 
W. E. An examination of these tables shows that: 
I. B. R. reads about one-half as fast as W. E. 



40 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

2. The number of questions attempted by each is quite different, 
while the number answered correctly is almost the same. This 
emphasizes again the fact that B. R.'s chief difficulty in silent 
reading is that he is slow. 

By comparing Tables XII and IX and Tables XIII and X we 
see that both subjects are low in rates of reading poetry and some- 
what lower in their percentages of questions answered correctly. 
This is probably due to the fact that pupils who have little training 
in reading poetry find it in general more difficult to answer questions 
on poetry than on prose. 

Table XIV gives the results for all subjects in the silent reading 
of poetry, and Table XIV A redistributes the subjects according 
to speed. 

Attention may be called in Table XIV A to the fact that the 
more rapid readers of Groups 4 and 5 do not attempt as many ques- 
tions nor answer as great a percentage of them as Groups 2 and 3. 
This is an indication that Groups 4 and 5 read too rapidly for 
efficiency. 

The results for poetry and prose are contrasted in Tables XXVII 
and XXVIII near the close of the present chapter. 



SILENT READING POR THE PURPOSE OF REPRODUCTION 

The second method used for testing silent reading was that of 
having the subjects read passages and reproduce the material read. 
In this test there were ten prose selections taken from the "River- 
side Series" of readers, selection i being first-grade material; 
selection 2, second-grade; and so on to the tenth selection, which 
was difficult material. Each subject read and reproduced the three 
selections which represented his own grade and the second grade 
above and the second grade below that grade. That is, fifth- 
grade pupils read selections 3, 5, and 7. An exception was 
made in the case of the third grade, which read selections 2, 3, 
and 5. 

In order to score the results in this test, each selection was 
divided into units, and the reader was given credit for each of the 
units he reproduced. These units were not intended to represent 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 41 



TABLE XIV 

Record of All Subjects in Silent Reading of Poetry for Answering 

Questions 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in 
Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Questions 
Attempted 


Writing 
Time 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 




I 


2 


I. 9-1. 7 


2 


9 


1:44 


S5-0 




2 


2 


3-6-2. 9 


3 


7 


1:30 


60.0 




3 


2 


3-7-3-4 


4 


10 


1:56 


80.0 




4 


2 


31-2. 8 


3 


9 


2:38 


90.0 


3 


5 


2 


I. 6-1. 4 


2 


9 


2:27 


50.0 




6 


2 


2.3-2.2 


3 


8 


2:59 


60.0 




7 


2 


3-3-2.5 


3 


10 


2:02 


100. 




8 


2 


I . 2-0 . 9 


I 


10 


2:33 


65.0 




9 


2 


2.1-1.7 


2 


8 


2:47 


60.0 




10 


3 


2.4-1.7 


2 


15 


6:00 


46.6 




" 


3 


31-2. 3 


3 


15 


5:41 


60.0 




12 


3 


2 . 6-2 . I 


3 


IS 


2:13 


46.6 


4 


13 


3 


I. 8-1. 6 


2 


9 


3:48 


S6.6 




14 


2 


2.1-1.9 


2 


6 


3:22 


50.0 




15 


2 


I -5-1 -4 


2 


3 


1:28 


20.0 




16 


3 


I . 6-1 . 2 


2 


14 


9:13 


46.6 




. 17 


3 


I . 6-1 . 4 


2 


13 


12:41 


40.0 




■ 18 


3 


2.1-1.7 


2 


IS 


3:12 


40.0 




19 


3 


2.3-1.9 


2 


12 


9:03 


40.0 




20 


3 


2 . 7-1 . 6 


2 


12 


5:54 


233 


5 


21 


3 


31-2. 8 


3 


8 


6:27 


233 




22 


3 


2.4-1.3 


2 


6 


5:14 


133 




23 


3 


3 -5-2. 3 


3 


10 


5:54 


33-3 




24 


3 


4.4-2.8 


3 


14 


5:40 


53-3 




I 25 


3 


I. 9-1. 5 


2 


IS 


10:51 


43-3 




■ 26 


3 


I . 4-1 . 


I 


9 


6 -.53 


50.0 




27 


3 


3-3-2.7 


3 


15 


6:50 


53-3 




28 


3 


2.5-1.8 


2 


8 


4:50 


13-3 


6 


29 


3 


2.4-1.7 


2 


8 


4:58 


40.0 




30 


3 


4-8-3.4 


4 


II 


3:20 


33-3 




31 


3 


3-4-1-8 


2 


15 


6:03 


53-3 




I 32 


3 


3 -1-2. I 


3 


IS 


7:05 


60:0 




33 


3 


3-3-2. 4 


3 


15 


3:59 


46.6 




34 


3 


2.7-2.0 


2 


12 


4:04 


26.6 




35 


3 


2.6-1.8 


2 


9 


3:14 


33-3 




36 


3 


3.0-2.2 


3 


10 


4:18 


40.0 


7 ' 


37 


3 


2.8-1.9 


2 


13 


7:30 


,53-3 




38 


3 


3.0-2.0 


2 


12 


3-54 


46.6 




39 


3 


4.1-2.7 


3 


10 


2:56 


60.0 




40 


3 


3-7-2-6 


3 


13 


4:25 


26.6 




. 41 


3 


2.6-2.5 


3 


12 


7:56 


50.0 




42 


3 


4.6-3.2 


4 


II 


2:51 


53-3 




43 


3 


3-9-3-0 


3 


14 


2:18 


66.6 




44 


3 


3-0-2.3 


3 


II 


3:58 


40.0 




45 


3 


3.9-2.6 


3 


8 


3:05 


36.6 


H.S , 


46 


3 


3.1-2.0 


2 


IS 


6:13 


96.6 




47 


3 


3-8-2.7 


3 


II 


3:30 


30.0 




48 


3 


3-2-2.8 


3 


14 


3:39 


53-3 




49 


2 


2. i-i .9 


2 


4 


= 45 


40.0 




50 


3 


3-5-2.9 


3 


9 


2:10 


36.6 




I 51 


3 


3.2-2.6 


3 


9 


3:09 


40.0 



42 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 
TABLE XIV— Continued 



Subject 


Grade 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in 
Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Questions 
Attempted 


Writing 
Time 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 


c 


52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
I 59 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


5 
4 
5 
3 
4 
7 
5 
3 


2-3 
6-2 
8-4 
4-3 
1-3 
8-4 

0-3 
0-2 


8 

4 
2 

I 
5 
7 


4 


4 
3 
5 
4 
4 
5 
3 
3 


9 

14 
II 
10 
5 
7 
14 
13 


1:03 
5:14 
1:55 
2:57 
i:ii 
1:20 

3:23 
4:28 


43-3 
80.0 
36.6 
20.0 
10. 
40.0 

53-3 
500 



TABLE XIV A 

Summary of Table XVI on the Basis of Range in Minimum Rate 



Group 


Range in 

Minimum 

Rate 


No. in 
Group 


Grades 


Range in 

Maximum 

Rates 


Range in No. 
of Questions 
Attempted 


Range in 

Percentage of 

Questions 

Correct 


Range in 
Writing Time 


1. . . . 

2. . . . 

3 

4 

5 


. 9-1 . 
I. 1-2.0 
2.1-3.0 

3.1-4.0 
4.1-5.0 


2 

23 
26 

6 

2 


3,6 

3,4, 5, 6, 7, H.S. 

3,4,5,6,7,H.S., 

C. 
3, 6, H.S., C. 
C. 


I. 2-1. 4 
1-5-3-4 
2-3-5-0 

3-4-5-2 
5-8-7.8 


9-10 
3-15 
7-lS 

5-1 1 
7-11 


SO.O- 65.0 
13-3- 96.6 
23.3-100.0 

10. 0- 80.0 
36.6- 40.0 


2:33- 6:53 
0:45-12:41 
1:30- 7:56 

1:03- 3:20 
1:20- 1:5s 



single ideas, but rather units of thought. One of the selections 
divided for scoring is shown below: 

Robin Hood sent a present / to Queen Katherine / 
with which she was so pleased / that she swore she would 
be a friend / to the noble outlaw / as long as she might 
live./ So one day / the queen went to her chamber / and 
called to her a page / of her company / and bade him make 
haste / and prepare to ride to Nottinghamshire / to find 
Robin Hood / in Sherwood Forest;/ for the queen had made 
a match / with the king,/ her archers against his archers,/ 
and the queen proposed to have Robin Hood / and his band / 
to shoot on her side / against the king's archers./ 

Tables XV and XVI show the records in this test for B. R. and 
W. E. Here again the advantage is with W. E. He reproduces on 
the average 6.5 per cent more points than does B. R. and reads a 
little more than twice as fast. 

Table XVII gives the results for all subjects in this same test. 
This table is summarized in Table XVII A. The column of per- 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 43 

centages in Table XVII refers to the number of points correct out 
of the total number of points in the three selections reproduced. 

TABLE XV 
Record of B. R. in Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


A, 


1:15 
1:07 
1:27 


1-7 
1.6 

1-4 


24.0 
40.9 
375 


4:02 


6 


4: 27 


8 


2:55 






Total .... 


3:49 






11: 24 










Average . . 






34.1 













TABLE XVI 
Recojid of W. E. in Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


4 

6 


:28 
:34 


4.6 
4.2 
3-6 


40.0 
31.8 
50.0 


3:58 
2:37 


8 


3:00 






Total .... 


1:27 






0: '?=; 










Average 






40.6 













The reproduction of the third grade was oral, which accounts for 
the omission of the writing time. This change was made necessary 
by the fact that the writing proved to be a very great distraction 
for this grade. 

SILENT READING FOR THE PURPOSE OF OUTLINING 

A third method of measuring the results of silent reading was 
that of requiring, not a reproduction, but an outline, of the passage 
read. Three selections graded as easy, medium, and difficult 
were used. No pupils below the fourth grade took this test. The 
main points in each selection were determined, and the results 
scored according to the degree of accuracy with which they were 
selected and stated. 



44 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



TABLE XVII 
Record of All Subjects in Reproduction 



Grade 



H.S. 



Subject 



12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 

18 

19 
20 
21 

22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 

33 
34 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
51 



No. of 
Selections 



Range in Rate 



I . 9-0 . 6 
3-3-I-3 
3-3-I-3 
3.6-1. I 
2 . i-i . 5 
2.7-0.8 
3- 2-0.8 
I . i-o . 4 
2 . o-i . 8 

3.0-2.4 
3 0-2. 3 
31-2. 3 
I. 9-1. 5 
2.3-1.9 
I. 8-1. 4 
2.5-1.6 
2.1-1.3 

I. 9-1. 7 
I. 9-1. 7 
2.0-1.8 
2.9-2.4 
2.4-0.7 
3-5-I-7 
3-1-2.5 
2.0-1.7 

I. 7-1. 4 
3.0-1.7 
I. 8-1. 5 
2.2-1.8 
4.3-2.6 
4.6-3.6 
2 . 8-1 . 4 

3-2-2.5 

2.3-1-4 
2 . 2-1 . 6 
2.7-1.9 
2.0-1. 7 
2.8-2.6 
4-3-3-3 
5-9-3-9 
6.6-3.9 

3-7-3-1 
5-7-4-1 
2.4-1-5 
3.6-2.8 

3-7-2.5 
3-7-3-1 
4.0-3.2 
2 . 6-0 . 9 
2.9-2.6 
3.6-2.9 



Minimum- 
Rate Group 



Percentage of 
Points Correct 



51-0 

40.8 
Si. 6 
61.7 
54-1 
68.4 

53-1 
44-1 



32> 
44. 
31- 
38. 
33- 



28.5 
23-8 

31-9 
40.5 
31 

42 
27 
17 
36 
21 



33-8 
42. 2 
26.0 
26.7 

29 -5 
40.8 
43-6 

29-3 
19-3 
26.8 
46.0 
52.2 

47-5 
36.2 

4S-0 
45-0 

54-6 
53-1 
36.4 
48.9 
64-5 
51-0 
49-4 
00.0 
50.0 
44-7 



Writing Time 



12:45 
11:47 

9:13 
13:33 
10: 14 

9:17 

12:33 
23:00 

5:26 

13:13 

7:29 

16:14 

18:06 

5:33 

8:29 

12:30 

11:24 

13:23 
10:51 
11:32 
9:54 
9:35 
13:24 

6:19 
5:20 
7:29 

15:25 
6:49 
9:40 
7:52 
8:26 

9:13 

6:53 

9:02 

9:11 

11:03 

12:00 

11:33 
10: 12 



7:07 
9:24 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 45 
TABLE XVU— Continued 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Writing Time 




f 52 


3 


44-3-9 


4 


21.8 


4:08 




53 


3 


4 


4-3-7 


4 


50 


5 


11:30 




54 


3 


4 


7-4-5 


5 


33 


3 


7:19 


c 


55 
56 


3 


3 


3-2.6 


3 


36 


4 


7:43 




3 


3 


5-2.6 


3 


23 


9 


6:40 




57 


3 


7 


5-6.6 


7 


26 





3:36 




58 


3 


2 


8-2.7 


3 


54 


I 


9:25 




I 59 


3 


3-6-2.7 


3 


32.8 


6:17 



TABLE XVII A 
Summary of Table XVII on the Basis of Minimum: Rates 



Group 


Range in 

Minimum 

Rate 


No. in 
Group 


Grades 


Range in 

Maximum 

Rate 


Range in 
Percentage of 

Points 
Reproduced 


Range in 
Writing Time 


I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 
5- 
6 




. 0.4-1.0 
I. 1-2.0 
. 2.1-3.0 
. 3-1-4.0 
. 4-I-5-0 
. S. 1-6.0 
. 6.1-7.0 


6 

25 
16 

9 

2 


I 


3, 5, H.S. 
3,4, 5, 6, 7, H.S. 
4,5,6,7,H-S.,C. 
6, 7, H.S., C. 
H.S., C. 


I . 1-3 . 2 
1.7-3.6 

2.8-4.3 
3.7-6.6 

4.7-5-7 


. 0-68 . 4 
II.I-81.6 
23.9-64.5 
21.8-54.6 
33-3-53-1 


5 : 26-23 : 00 

6:17-16:14 
4:08-11:33 
7:19- 9:02 


7- 


C. 


7-5 


26.0 


3:36 



In Tables XVIII and XIX the results in this test for B. R. 
and W. E. are given. Again the rate of W. E. is more than twice 
as fast as that of B. R. On the average there is little difference in 
the points correct. It should be noted that B. R. gets nothing 
correct in selection 4, while W. E. is credited with 50 per cent. 
Attention may also be called to the fact that the scores here 
are slightly lower than they were in the reproduction test. 
This may be due to the fact that outlining is more difficult than 
reproduction, or it may be due to the differences in material 
read. 

Table XX gives the results for all subjects in outlining. 
The small percentage of points correct for college students 
is interesting because the type of work is the same as that 
required daily of college students. Table XX A summarizes 
this table. 



46 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



RAPID SILENT READING 



To determine the effect of rapidity upon the child's reading, a 
high-speed test was given. Three prose selections — one easy, one 



TABLE XVIII 
Record of B. R. in Outlining 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


2 

Q 


1:56 
1:37 
2:30 


1-5 
1-7 
1-4 


62.5 

25.0 

0.0 


3:25 
2:03 
1:30 


4 


Total 


6:03 






6:58 








Average . . 






29. 2 













TABLE XIX 

Record of W. E. in Outlining 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


2 


140 
■44 
:S9 


4-5 
3-7 
3-4 


25 
25.0 
50.0 


^■■35 
1:25 
2:15 


a 


4 




Total 


2:23 






5:15 








Average . . 






33-3 













medium, and one difficult — were read as rapidly as possible and then 
reproduced. 

Tables XXI and XXII give the results for B. R. and W. E. in 
rapid reading. If the records for these two subjects in reproduction, 
outhning, and speed are compared, it will be noted that W. E. is 
able to double his speed without reducing his efficiency. In the 
case of B. R. the rate for the first selection is increased without 
a decrease in efficiency; in the second there is a slight increase in 
rate accompanied by a slight decrease in efficiency. Such results 
for B. R. indicate clearly that his work in reading is done at a much 
lower level than it might be done. 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 47 



TABLE XX 

Record of All Sxibjects in Outlining 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Percentage of 
PointsCorrect 


Writing Time 




10 


3 


2.6-2.2 


3 


20.0 


8:55 




II 


3 


3.8-3 


4 


4 


30.0 


7:04 




12 


3 


6.2-4 


2 


5 


lO.O 


5:46 


4. 


13 
14 


3 
2 


1. 6-1 
1. 9-1 


4 
8 


2 
2 


20.0 
50.0 


10:39 


•T 


5:33 




15 


2 


1. 6-1 


5 


2 


0.0 


3:12 




16 


3 


I. 7-1 


4 


2 


10. 


5:09 




17 


3 


1. 6-1 


5 


2 


150 


6:24 




■ 18 


3 


2.5-1 


2 


2 


40.0 


6:27 




19 


3 


4.0-2 


5 


3 


30.0 


5:12 




20 


2 


2.3-1 


9 


2 


31.2 


3:14 


1; 


21 

22 


3 
3 


3-5-2 
2.6-1 


6 

7 


3 
2 


40.0 
20.0 


9:48 
8:11 







23 


3 


2.6-1 


5 


2 


25.0 


3:51 




24 


3 


3-7-2 


7 


3 


20.0 


4:44 




I 25 


3 


2.9-1 


8 


2 


30.0 


9:53 




■ 26 


3 


1. 7-1 


4 


2 


350 


6:58 




27 


3 


4.8-2 


5 


3 


20.0 


8:18 




28 


3 


2.4-2 





2 


50.0 


7:26 


6 


29 
30 


3 
3 


3.1-2 
5-1-4 


2 


3 
5 


3S-0 
30.0 


2:19 




7 


5:18 




31 


3 


4-5-3 


4 


4 


30.0 


5:15 




I 32 


3 


3-3-2 


3 


3 


40.0 


6: 22 




33 


3 


3-8-2 


8 


3 


40.0 


4:19 




34 


3 


5-8-3 





3 


40.0 


3:30 




35 


3 


2.2-1 


9 


2 


40.0 


5:54 




36 


3 


2.8-2 


5 


3 


50.0 


4:33 


7 


37 


3 


2.4-2 





2 


60.0 


5:31 




38 


3 


2.8-2 





2 


30.0 


3:53 




39 


3 


4-1-3 


7 


4 


40.0 


4:41 




40 


3 


5-5-3 


7 


4 


60.0 


5:28 




41 


3 


43-3 


3 


4 


60.0 


6:37 




42 


3 


5-0-3 


I 


4 


70.0 


4:49 




43 


3 


50-3 


9 


4 


70.0 


7:03 




44 


3 


2.4-2 


2 


3 


550 


4:17 




45 


3 


4-3-2 


4 


3 


65.0 


5:34 


H.S 


46 


3 


4-5-2 


2 


3 


80.0 


7:27 




47 


3 


5-9-4 


4 


5 


60.0 


4:35 




48 


3 


4-5-3 


9 


4 


70.0 


5:62 




49 
SO 












■■■- — ■• 




3 


4.1-1 


6" 


2 


7S-0 






, SI 


3 


4-4-3 


3 


4 


60.0 


3:45 




52 


3 


4-6-3 


6 


4 


40.0 


S:i8 




S3 


3 


4.0-2 


8 


3 


70.0 


8:12 




54 


3 


6.9-4 


5 


5 


30.0 


4:33 


C 


55 


3 


3-7-3 





3 


60.0 


3:28 


56 


3 


4-2-3 





3 


60.0 


4:17 




57 


3 


8.6-7 


8 


8 


20.0 


2:08 




58 


3 


5-3-3 


3 


4 


80.0 


5:05 




I 59 


3 


3-4-3 





3 


60.0 


5:09 



48 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

TABLE XX A 
SmiMARY OF Table XX on the Basis of Minimum Rates 



Group 


Range in 

Minimum 

Rate 


No. in 
Group 


Grades 


Range in 

Maximum 

Rate 


Range in 
Percentage of 

Points 
Reproduced 


Range in 
Writing Time 


I 


O.O-I.O 
I.I-2.0 

2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 
4.1-5.0 
5.1-6.0 
6.1-7.0 
7.1-8.0 



16 

17 
II 

4 


I 










2 

3 

4 

5 

6 


4, 5,6, 7,H.S. 
4,5,6,7,H.S.,C. 
4, 6, 7, H.S., C. 
4, 6, H.S., C. 


I . 6-4 . I 
2.4-5.8 
3-8-5.5 
5-1-6.9 


0-75 
20-80 
30-80 
10-60 


3:12-10:39 
2:19- 9:48 
3:45- 7:04 
4:33- 5:46 


7 










8 


C. 


8.6 


20 


2:08 



TABLE XXI 
Record of B. R. in Rapid Silent Reading 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


2 


= 31 

:45 

1:00 


3-1 
2.3 
1.9 


30.0 

26.1 

0.0 


2:03 
2:06 

:S8 


3 

4. 




Total 


2:16 






5:07 








Average . . 






18.7 













TABLE XXII 

Record of W. E. in Rapid Silent Reading 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Time for Writing 


2 


:i2 
:i6 
123 


7.9 
6.5 


75.0 
21.7 
^3-3 


3:05 


■i 


2:33 
4:00 


4 






Total .... 


:5i 






9:38 








Average 






36.6 













Tables XXIII and XXIII A give the results for all subjects 
in this test. 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 49 



TABLE XXIII 

Record of All Subjects in Rapid Silent Reading 



Grade 



Subject 



No. of 
Selections 


Range in Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Writbg Time 


2 


2 . Q-i . 7 


2 

4 


31-0 

51-7 




2 


3- 


9-3-4 




2 


3- 

4- 


9-3-2 
7-2.9 


4 
3 


27.6 
68.9 




2 




2 


3- 


3-2-8 


3 


24.1 




I 


3 
5- 

I 
2 

3 


I 

2-3-4 
4-1.2 
4-1.7 

6-2.5 


4 
4 
2 
2 

3 


66.6 
60.3 

32-7 
24.1 

30.1 




2 




2 




2 




3 


10:06 


3 


3 


9-3 -o 


3 


30.8 


8:27 


3 


S- 


8-3.2 


4 


13-7 


5:36 


2 


2 


3-1.2 


2 


19.7 


5:14 


2 


2 


5-2.2 


3 


13-9 


5:27 


2 


2 


1-1.8 


2 


13 9 


5:13 


3 


I 


9-1. 2 


2 


19. 1 


14:00 


3 


2 


0-1. 5 


2 


5-5 


12:45 


3 


2 


9-1.8 


2 


32.8 


6:09 


3 


3 


9-3-4 


4 


9.6 


3:27 


3 


2 


9-2.8 


3 


15-0 


6:52 


3 


4 


3-3 -o 


3 


39-7 


11:48 


3 


3 


6-1.8 


2 


18.5 


10:15 


3 


3 


9-2.7 


3 


12.3 


5:48 


3 


5 


3-4 -o 


4 


35-6 


8:28 


3 


3 


9-2-3 


3 


8.9 


6:53 


3 


3 


1-1.9 


2 


16.4 


5:07 


3 


4 


7-3 -o 


3 


34-2 


8:56 


3 


3 


8-2.3 


3 


9.6 


5:08 


3 


3 


6-2.5 


3 


17.8 


5:52 


3 


5 


3-4-5 


5 


27.4 


7:06 


3 


7 


9-5-1 


6 


32-8 


9:38 


3 


3 


4-1.9 


2 


27.4 


8:49 


3 


3 


8-2.8 


3 


28.7 


4:44 


3 


4 


2-2.1 


3 


25-3 


5:11 


3 


3 


1-2.2 


3 


12.3 


5:19 


3 


4 


0-3.0 


3 


38-3 


7:33 


3 


3 


4-2.1 


3 


35-6 


5:30 


3 


5 


6-3.1 


4 


26.7 


6:39 


3 


5 


6-4.0 


4 


54-8 


8:23 


3 


4 


5-3-9 


4 


35-6 


8:05 


3 


6 


3-3-9 


4 


35-6 


8:55 


3 


5 


6-4.9 


5 


58.9 


5:16 


3 


9 


5-6-5 


7 


39-7 


3:59 


3 


3 


3-2-4 


3 


35-2 


4:55 


3 


5 


. 6-4 . 2 


5 


32-8 


3:30 


3 


8 


.7-6.8 


7 


47-9 


4:53 


3 


6 


.1-4.9 


5 


45-2 


6:25 


3 


8 


.6-7.3 


8 


35.6 


5:02 


I 


I 
5 


. 2 

. 6-4 . 


2 
4 


0.0 
35-6 




3 


5:47 


3 


5 


. 6-4 . 


4 


34-2 


3:49 



H.S. 



10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 

18 

19 
20 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 

26 

27 
28 

29 
30 
31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 

37 
38 

39 
40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 

49 
50 
51 



so 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 
TABLE XXIII—Contintied 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of 
Selections 


Range in Rate 


Minimum- 
Rate Group 


Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Writing Time 


c 


52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
I 59 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


6.0-3 
4-0-3 
6.1-5 
4-1-3 
59-3 
9-4-7 
5-6-5 
5 -0-4 


9 
I 

I 
I 
3 
3 
5 
2 


4 
4 
6 
4 
4 
8 
6 
5 


30-1 
48.6 
40.4 
36-3 
23-9 
33-5 
42.4 
20.5 


4:00 
8:46 

5:51 
5:06 

4:23 
2:21 
4:41 
4:14 



TABLE XXIII A 
Stjmmary of Table XXIII on the Basis of Minimxjm Rates 



Group 


Range in 

Minimum 

Rate 


No. in 
Group 


Grades 


Range in 

Maximum 

Rate 


Range in 

Percentage of 

Points 

Correct 


Range in 
Writing Time 


I 


O.O-I.O 
I. 1-2.0 
2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 
4-1-5-0 
5. 1-6.0 
6.1-7.0 
7.1-8.0 




12 

18 

17 

5 

3 

2 

2 










2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 


3, 4, 5, 6, H.S. 

3,4, 5,6, 7, H.S. 

3,4,5,7,H.S.,C. 

6, H.S., C. 

6, C. 

H.S. 

H.S., C. 


I 
2 
3 
5 
5 
8 
8 


2-3 
5-4 
1-6 
0-6 
6-7 
7-9 
6-9 


6 
7 
3 

I 

9 

5 
4 



8 

9 

20 

32 
39 
33 


0-32 
9-68 
6-66 
5-58 
8-42 
7-47 

5-35 


8 

9 
6 

9 

4 
9 
6 


5:07-14:00 
4:44-11:48 
3:27- 8:5s 
3:30- 7:06 
4:41- 9:38 

3:59- 4:53 
2:21- 5:02 



OTHER TESTS IN SILENT READING 

The tests in silent reading which have been used so far are open 
to the objection that our knowledge of the subject's ability in 
reading is gained through an elaborate reproduction, which is 
itself a complex involving the use of language powers of a high 
order. In order to remove this complication in part, three tests 
were given in which the language required for the response was 
reduced to a minimum. In order to determine how rapidly a body 
of printed matter can be hastily read, the subject was given a news- 
paper and told to find as quickly as possible an article with a certain 
title. In addition to recording the time required by the subject to 
find the article, his method was also graded. Subjects who made a 
detailed inspection of the various columns were given low grades; 
those who made a general inspection, which was not too hasty, 
were given high grades. In addition to this first t3^e of test not 
requiring language, which will be referred to as the newspaper test, 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 51 

a modification of the Woodworth and Wells's easy direction test 
was given and Courtis' normal reading test was given. Tables 
XXIV-XXVI A give the results and summaries in these tests. 
In these tables B. R. is No. 26 and W. E. is No. 31. In each of the 
tests the great difference between these two subjects is their rates. 
It might be thought that B. R. is slow in all his reactions, but his 
physical-education teacher reports that he plays baseball and 
basket-ball with speed and accuracy. 

In the newspaper test it should be noted that every subject but 
one succeeded in finding the article and that, with the exception of 
Group 3, each group has in it one or more persons who receive the 
grade P. 

In the Woodworth- Wells direction test the material to be read 
is very simple, and the response called for is not at all complex. 
On the other hand, the test is somewhat novel, and undoubtedly 
some time is taken by most subject's in adjusting themselves to it. 
Thus elements other than comprehension are introduced. The 
time required for the response also varies, and the words used have 
different degrees of familiarity for the different subjects. The exact 
influence of these factors cannot be determined, but they doubtless 
contribute to the variations in time, which extend from 49 seconds 
for one subject to 6 minutes and 17 seconds for another. 

With respect to the Courtis test, attention need be called only 
to the large individual differences which are found in rate and the 
percentage of points correct. 

COMPARISON OF RESULTS FOR ALL TESTS 

Objections may be raised to all the methods of testing compre- 
hension, because these in every case involve memory. Presumably 
one may lose, even in the short intervals here involved, some of 
that which he gains through first impressions. This criticism added 
to the objection raised to all the reproduction tests — that they 
involve the use of language — has led some to the conclusion that a 
part at least of the large variations found in reading ability are due 
to defects in the tests rather than to real differences in ability to 
read. The large individual variations in the last three tests are 
therefore very interesting, because in all three tests the language 
element is reduced to a minimum and in the first two the memory 



52 



TYPES OF READING ABIUTY 



TABLE XXIV 

Recokp of All Subtects in the Newsvapek Ti'.st 



Giade 


Subject 


Time 


Group 


Method 


Result 




lO 


6:02 


7 


F 


+ 




II 


I 


05 


2 


04- 


+ 




12 


1 


Ol 


3 


e'. 


+ 


4. 


13 


I 


4^^ 


^ 


Cv 


+ 


•t"** 


14 


D 


oS 


7 


P 


+ 




15 


5 


30 


6 


F 


+ 




16 


2 


S3 


3 


F 


+ 




17 


5 


28 


6 


G 


+ 




iS 





50 


I 


G 


+ 




ip 


J 


00 


3 


G 


+ 




JO 





3^ 


7 


G 


+ 


e 


ji 


4 


11 


5 


P 


+ 


* 


2 "> 


I 


41 


2 


G 


+ 




-'3 


5 


14 


6 


P 


— 




-'4 


r 


^;o 


^•> 


F 


+ 




25 


7 


0^; 


8 


P- 


+ 




26 


-^ 


30 


4 


F 


+ 




27 


4 


^5 


5 


F 


+ 




28 


1 


-■0 


2 


G 


+ 


6 


20 
30 


5 


^0 

00 


6 


P 

G4- 


+ 




+ 




31 





38 


I 


P 


+ 




32 


- 


C5 


3 


F 


+ 




; ^ 


2 


00 


2 


G 


+ 




34 


I 


21 


2 


G+ 


+ 




35 





51 


I 


G 


+ 




36 


I 


40 


2 


F 


+ 


7 


^7 


2 


30 


^ 


G 


+ 


' 


3S 


•-> 


40 


3 


F 


+ 




39 


3 


O- 


4 


P 


+ 




40 





40 


I 


G 


+ 




41 


I 


-3 


- 


G 


+ 




4- 





j;i 


I 


E 


+ 




43 





; J 


I 


G 


+ 




44 





^p 


I 


G 


+ 




45 





48 


I 


G 


+ 


H.S 


4P 


I 


45 


- 


P 


+ 




4r 





j8 


I 


G 


+ 




48 





50 


I 


G 


+ 




49 


I 


5 7 


2 


G 


+ 




50 





J7 


I 


G+ 


+ 




51 


I 


00 


I 


G 


+ 




52 





■8 


I 


G+ 


+ 




53 





45 


I 


G 


+ 




54 


I 


20 


2 





+ 


C 


55 





40 


I 


G+ 
F+ 


+ 

+ 




56 


I 


15 


2 




57 





25 


I 


F+ 


+ 




5S 





32 


1 


G 


4- 




5>-5 





^;i 


I 


P 


— 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OP READING ABILITY 

TABLE XXIV A 
Summary of Table XXIV on the Basis op Range in Time 



53 



Group 


Range in Time 


No. of Subjects 


Grades 


Range in Grades 


I 


0:25-1:00 
1:01-2:00 
2:01-3:00 
3:01-4:00 
4:01-5:00 
5:01-6:00 
6:01-7:00 
7:01-8:00 


18 

14 

6 

2 
2 
4 

3 

I 


5, 6, 7, H.S., C. 

4,5,6,7,H.S.,C. 

4, 5, 6, 7 

6,7 

5,6 

4, 5,6 

4,5 

5 


P-E 


2 


V~(j-\- 


X 


F-G 


4 


P-F 


e 


P-F 


6 


P-G 


7 


P-G 


8 


P- 







element plays no part. Other comparisons between the results 
for these various tests follow immediately. Table XXVII makes 
possible a comparis<^>n of minimum rates for the different types of 
reading. The direction test and newspaper test are omitted be- 
cause it is impossible to give results in the form of rate. The table 
has the same general plan as the preceding tables which have 
distributed subjects according to rates, and no further explanation 
is necessary. 

In making the comparisons indicated in Table XXVII we must 
remember that the material read in each test was different from 
that in any other test. However, a careful comparison of the 
different selections leads the author to believe that all the differ- 
ences shown in the table are not due to differences in the difficulty 
of the material read. This emphasizes the very great need for a 
much larger collection of standardized selections for tests in reading 
than is now at hand. Material selected from other kinds of dis- 
course than descriptive and narrative prose should be graded in 
this manner. 

Returning now to a discussion of the table at hand, we may note 
the following points: 

I. If the results of oral reading of the various types are com- 
pared, it will be seen that the rates for both poetry and oratory are 
faster than the rates in the prose column. While this may indicate 
that there were differences in the difficulty of selections chosen for 
the tests, it is not probable that differences in rate are due entirely 
to the differences in the material read. Attention has already been 
called to the fact that most of the readers did not exhibit any 



54 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



TABLE XXV 

Record of All Subjects in the Woodworth- Wells Direction Test 



Grade 


Subject 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 


Writing 
Time 


Group 


Grade 


Subject 


Percentage 

of Questions 

Correct 


Writing 
Time 


Group 




I 


750 


3:56 


4 




f 33 


950 


2:05 


3 




2 


950 


2:07 


3 




34 


90.0 


2:12 


3 




3 


85.0 


2:48 


3 




35 


90.0 


1:39 


2 




4 


95-0 


3:07 


4 




36 


100. 


2:04 


3 


3 


1 s 


7S.O 


3:49 


4 


7.... 


1 37 


95 


1:35 






6 


75 -o 


4:01 


S 




38 


100. 


1:37 


2 




7 


95 


2:57 


3 




39 


950 


1:25 


2 




8 


55-0 


6: 17 


7 




40 


100. 


1:01 


2 




I 9 


75-0 


3:47 


4 




I 41 


100. 


1:23 


2 




lO 


100. 


3:20 


4 




r 42 


100. 


0:54 


I 




II 


95 


2:17 


3 




43 


90.0 


0:49 


I 




12 


70.0 


2:56 


3 




44 


950 


1:39 


2 


4 


13 


90.0 


3:19 


4 




45 


100. 


1:08 


2 


14 


85.0 


2:46 


3 


HS 


46 


950 


1:03 


2 




15 


75 -o 


4:19 


S 




47 


950 


1:16 


2 




i6 


950 


3:01 


4 




48 


100. 


0:58 


I 




I 17 


950 


3-33 


4 




49 

50 


950 
95 


2:01 
0:53 


3 

I 




i8 


95-0 


1:57 


2 




. 51 


85.0 


1:21 


2 




19 


100. 


2:28 


3 














20 


85.0 


2:18 


3 




f 52 


100. 


1:15 


2 


s 


21 

22 


90.0 
85.0 


2:25 
2:35 


3 
3 




53 

54 


100. 
100. 


0:56 
1:10 


I 
2 




23 


100. 


2:37 


3 


c 


55 


95 


1:26 


2 




24 


90.0 


2: 20 


3 




56 


950 


1:01 


2 




I 25 


90.0 


3:37 


4 




57 
58 


90.0 
100. 


0:52 
0:53 


I 
I 




' 26 


85. 


2:50 


3 




I 59 


70.0 


1:00 


I 




27 


90.0 


3:18 


4 














28 


950 


2:20 


3 












6 


29 
30 
31 

I 32 


85.0 
95 
950 
90.0 


2:59 
1:56 
1:44 
2:12 


3 

2 
2 
3 













TABLE XXV A 
Summary of Table XXV on the Basis of Range in Time 



Group 


Range in Time 


No. of Subjects 


Grades 


Range in Percentage 
of Points Correct 


I 

2 

3 


0:49-1:00 
1:01-2:00 
2:01-3:00 
3:01-4:00 
4:01-5:00 
5:01-6:00 
6:01-7:00 


8 
18 
20 
10 



I 


H.S., C. 

5, 6, 7, H.S., C. 

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, H.S. 

3,4,5,6 

3,4 


70-100 
85-100 
70-100 
75-100 

75 


4 


5 


6 


7 


3 


55 





TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 55 



TABLE XXVI 
Record of All Subjects in Courtis' Normal Reading Test 



Grade 


Subject 


Rate 


Rate Group 


Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Writing Time 




10 


1.8 


2 


750 


3:58 




II 


3-2 


4 


41. 6 


2:07 




12 


2.4 


3 


50.0 


2:46 


4 


13 


I.O 


I 


750 


4:36 


14 


0.8 


I 


79-2 


3:20 




15 


1. 1 


2 


62.4 


5:05 




16 


1-3 


2 


79.2 


4:17 




17 


0.9 


I 


58.2 


4:30 




18 


1-3 


2 


83.2 


3:06 




19 


i-S 


2 


70.7 


4: 10 




20 


i-S 


2 


70.7 


3:18 


5 


21 


1.9 


2 


83.2 


3:08 


22 


1-3 


2 


87.4 


2:32 




23 


1.8 


2 


58.2 


3:32 




24 


2.7 


3 


50.0 


3:00 




I 25 


1-5 


2 


66.6 


3:40 




26 


1-5 


2 


79.2 


3:26 




27 


2.9 
13 


3 
2 


70.7 
50.0 






28 


2:35 


6 


29 


1.0 


I 


62.4 


5:0s 




30 


1.0 


I 


66.6 


2:27 




31 


31 


4 


750 


2:50 




I 32 


2.5 


3 


70.7 


3:09 




33 


2.4 


3 


91.6 


2:33 




34 


2.2 


3 


70.8 


2:52 




35 


1.9 


2 


750 


2:11 




36 


1.8 


2 


79.2 


3:05 


7 


37 


1.8 


2 


62.5 


3:13 




38 


2.4 


3 


750 


2:25 




39 


2.6 


3 


833 


2:03 




40 


3-3 


4 


70.8 


2:09 




I 41 


3-7 


4 


833 


2:16 




42 


2.3 


3 


79.2 


1:23 




43 


2.8 


3 


70.8 


1:27 




44 


1-5 


2 


79.2 


2: 29 




45 


2.2 


3 


75-0 


2:2s 


H.S 


46 


2.0 


2 


79.2 


1:40 




47 


4-7 


5 


750 


1:55 




48 


2-5 


3 


87.5 


1:21 




49 


1.6 


2 


66.6 


3:25 




50 


2.9 


3 


79.2 


2:37 




I 51 


2. 1 


3 


87.5 


2:05 




52 


2.7 


3 


50.0 


i:iS 




53 


2.2 


3 


83.3 


1:51 




54 


3-9 


4 


66.6 


1:46 


C 


55 


2.4 


3 


66.6 


1:51 


56 


2.4 


3 


66.6 


1:54 




57 


5-5 


6 


54- 1 


0:52 




58 


3-5 


4 


750 


2: II 




I 59 


31 


4 


45-8 


1:35 



56 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

TABLE XXVI A 

SXJMMARY OF TABLE XXVI ON THE BaSIS OF MINIMUM RaTE 



Group 


Range in Rate 


No. of 
Subjects 


Grades 


Range in Points 
Correct 


Range in Writ- 
ing Time 


I 


.8-I.O 

I.I-2.0 

2.1-3.0 
3.1-4.0 
4.1-5.0 
5.1-6.0 


5 
18 
18 

7 

I 
I 


4,6 

4, 5, 6, 7, H.S. 

4,5,6,7,H.S.,C. 

4, 6, 7, C. 

H.S. 

C. 


58.2-79.2 

50.0-87.4 

50.0-91.6 

41.6-83.3 

75.0 

54-1 


2:27-5:05 
1:40-5:05 
1:15-3:09 
1:35-2:50 

i:S5 
0:52 


2 


? 


4 


c 


6 





marked differences in their modes of attacking reading matter of 
the various types. Yet the good-natured protests made by several 
of the subjects when they were confronted with the poetry and ora- 
tory, and the remarks which many of them made about not being 
able to get meaning from such selections, lead to the conclusion 

TABLE XXVII 

Comparison of Minimum Rates for Various Types of Reading 





Oral 


Silent 


Range in 


No. of Subjects in 


No. of Subjects in 


MrNnnm 
Rates 


Prose 


Poetry 


Oratory 


Prose 

(Answer- 
ing Ques- 
tions) 


Poetry 
(Answer- 
ing Ques- 
tions) 


Repro- 
duction 


Outlining 


Speed 


Courtis 


0— 1 .0 
I . 1-2 . 
2.1-3.0 
3 • 1-4 • 
4.1-5.0 
5.1-6.0 
6 . 1-7 . 
7.I-8.0 


23 
29 

7 


3 
24 
27 

5 


6 
19 

17 

5 


5 
28 

17 
8 

I 


2 

23 
26 

6 
2 


6 

25 
16 

9 

2 


I 




16 

17 
II 

4 


I 




12 

18 

17 

5 

3 

2 

2 


5 
18 
18 

7 

I 








I 









































that these t5^es o;f material present peculiar difficulties to the 
reader. This fact would seem to show that poetry and oratory 
are difficult rather than easy. The increase in rate cannot there- 
fore be explained on the assumption that the reading of poetry 
and oratory is more easily accomplished than the reading of narra- 
tive and descriptive prose. The difference lies rather in the way 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 57 

in which the reading was done. That is, the reading of poetry and 
oratory was a mechanical process for most of the readers. They 
hurried through the selections and made as few pauses as possible. 
In other words, it was a matter of pronouncing so many words, and 
hence the rate was more rapid. 

2. If the rates for the oral reading of prose are compared with 
those of silent reading of prose for the purpose of answering ques- 
tions, a higher speed is noted, on the average, for silent reading. 
However, an examination of individual records shows that in 28 
cases the oral reading is more rapid than the silent reading. Such 
results are probably to be explained by the fact that most of the 
training given in the school is in oral reading. Oral reading becomes 
the dominant fact in a child's experience, and whatever natural 
tendency he may have toward rapid silent reading is checked by 
the system of training of the school. 

3. A comparison of the rates of silent reading of prose in prepara- 
tion for answering questions and for reproduction shows that a few 
individuals read more rapidly in the latter test. The introspections 
of the adult subjects on this point were interesting. In nearly every 
case they were of the opinion that the reading for reproduction was 
more rapid than reading to prepare for questions, because they 
"rushed through the selection to see what it was about." 

4. The increase in the rate of reading for outlining was explained 
by certain adults as due to the fact that a large part of the material 
was neglected. If they found a main point in the topic sentence 
of a paragraph, the remaining portion of the paragraph was 
neglected altogether or looked through very hurriedly. 

5. The increase to be seen in the speed test is very important, 
because it shows that a large number of the subjects can increase 
their rate of reading when urged to do so. This point will be dis- 
cussed further in the consideration of Table XXVIII. 

The differences which exist between different kinds of reading 
are important from at least two points of view: First, the training 
which the school usually gives in reading is a general training, and 
the child in an uncontrolled way is left to apply it to all phases of 
reading. It is evidently desirable that training be given in several 
distinct types of reading. Secondly, the promiscuous arrangement 



S8 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



> 
X 
X 

< 



•T3 

6 


O 

o 
o 

o 

o 

3 

4, C. 

3,4 

3,4,5,6,7, 
H.S., C. 

3,4, 5,6, 7, 
H.S.,C. 


u O 


t^ rf lo 00 VO 
OOO O O M tooooo 1>. 


13 
6 


\n in loK inK t>cj 
OOO O •>?'<?'<f'<fiot. 


3.2 

a- 


O O O O O O 

OOO O « vo 00 O vO « 




vo ^; . - - 4 4 4 

•nwtjvo* vo" ffi Crt C/i 

Tfxf^ u? T? t; ni M 






1 M 

II 


>o -tvo <^ vo OO O -O O O 


1 

o 


t/2 . ^ri 

■* "f to to M to to o o o 


T3 

a 


IDvO Ol to lO H W 

OOOOVO t^ 00 lO lO o O 

H 1-1 CO 


1 


^~^ low loco <^, 

K tf tf u to t.; t^ t^ o CO o 


nopanpoida^ 


t^WCO*^WtOM t>. 

w lo d CO t~ lo lo O IH O 


13 

OS 

O 


_u; tCu^K-fd^Mtd d ffi 

CJ^ 10-<t to CO CO to CO to 


(snopsanf) 
SnuaAvs 
-uv)"iti;ao£ 


I>00 10'*CO^'*'*t^'t 
HOOO w O lo CO CO M CO 


T3 

o 


'-' t^c/j ^(A loco "^ CO . 

^ 4a 4ffi 4K >^ffico 

O OU CO c^ CO CO c^ ffi O 


(snopsanQ 

SUUSAS 
-UVi 3S0Jt(J 


t^ Ht N W M O 00 

OOw \n i^t^ejso O 


S E S 
2.SH 


o 

OOOOOOOOO 

ooc) o o d d o o o 
Til 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 








OOOOOOOOO 

wc^ co-^mvo t^QO 0^ 




1 






M«eo-^«ovo t*00 0> 


O 





TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 59 

of reading material which usually prevails in school readers seems 
to indicate that makers of readers are not aware of the differences 
which have been pointed out. The mixing of many kinds of mate- 
rial may be justified on the ground that various types of training 
are desirable. Or it may appear, when careful school experiments 
are carried out, that specialized training will be more effective. 
In that case the mixture of passages will be superseded. 

Table XXVIII makes possible a comparison of the results 
achieved in the various silent-reading tests, with the exception of 
the newspaper test, which is omitted because the results cannot be 
expressed in percentages. For convenience the percentages of 
answers or questions correct are divided into groups of ten, as 
o-io.o, 10. 1-20.0, 20.1-30.0, etc. In order to make the results 
comparable, the number of individuals who fall in each group is 
expressed as a percentage of the total number taking the test. 
That is, if three persons belong in Group 2 (10. 1-20.0) and 59 
persons have taken the test, then this is expressed as 5 . i per cent. 
In addition to the percentage of persons within the various groups, 
the school grades to which they belong are indicated in columns 
headed "Grades." 

If the results as shown in the table are considered, the following 
points become clear: 

1. The results of silent reading preparatory to answering ques- 
tions on poetry have a wider range than the results for any other 
test and when compared with the results for prose show clearly 
that poetry presents a different problem to the reader. 

2. If the results of reading prose for reproduction are compared 
with the results for answering questions, it will be seen that the 
attainment is not so high in reproduction as in answering questions. 
This evidently means that the problem presented to the reader 
in the reproduction test is more difficult than that presented in the 
test requiring answering of questions. Evidently the problem of 
the reader in the reproduction test has in it two elements : first, the 
method of attacking the reading matter may be different from that 
required in answering questions; secondly, the reproduction of the 
material read may be more difficult than writing answers to ques- 
tions. Doubtless both factors enter into the results noted above. 



6o TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

3. There is a marked falling off in power to give back the 
material read in the speed tests. An earlier discussion has shown 
that rate is increased in this test, but the relative lack of compre- 
hension shows that increase in rate was obtained at the expense of 
the amount of reproduction. However, if the individual records 
in this test are studied, as shown in Table XVII, it will be seen that 
a number of individuals do increase their rate without decreasing the 
amount which they reproduce. 

4. The most interesting point brought out by the outlining test 
is the separating of the subjects into two distinct divisions with the 
dividing point at the fifth group. No subject below the seventh 
grade is in Groups 6, 7, or 8 — an indication that previous training 
plays a large part in the results obtained from such a test. 

5. The much higher accomplishment indicated in the Courtis 
and direction tests shows that these tests are much easier than any 
of the others. 

6. If the distribution of grades in the various groups as indicated 
in the " Grade " columns is considered, it will be seen that an increase 
in achievement is directly related to an increase in school training. 

The very wide distribution of the third grade throughout the 
various groups is interesting. In the first test third-grade pupils 
appear in five of the seven groups represented, while in the second 
test pupils of this grade appear in six of the ten groups. 

It is hardly necessary to say that such wide variations in ability 
as those cited above present a very real problem to those who are 
giving instruction in reading. It is evident that devices and 
methods for increasing the efficiency of the poor reader need to be 
developed and placed at the disposal of the teachers who deal with 
the pupils from day to day. It is equally evident that good readers 
ought to be discovered by adequate methods and ought to be given 
a type of training appropriate to their achievements, even when 
they belong in the lower school grades. 

OTHER REPRODUCTION TESTS 

In addition to the tests already given, certain subjects were 
selected for supplementary tests. The first tests noted here are 
reproduction tests. In these the subjects read the material 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 6i 

silently and reproduced it orally. In a second series the material 
was read aloud to the subject, and the reproduction was made in 
writing. The purpose of introducing such tests was to get data 
which could be compared with the results already obtained in the 
simple tests described in earlier sections. The reading matter was 
selected from the same set of readers as that mentioned before. 
The results given are based upon two selections, instead of three 
as in the preceding reproduction tests. For the third grade selec- 
tions were taken from the third and fourth readers; for the fourth 
grade they were taken from the fourth and fifth readers, etc. Four- 
teen persons took the supplementary tests. Two subjects are 
included from each of the grades. One of these in each case was a 
poor reader, while the second was one of the better readers. In the 
tables which follow the poor readers are marked "P" and the good 
readers are indicated by "G." The numbers which indicate the 
various subjects are the same as those used in the preceding tables. 



TABLE XXIX 
Record of Fourteen Subjects in Second Group of Reproduction tests 





Oral Reproduction 


Written Reproduction 


Subject 


Grade 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Reading 
Ability 


Rate 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct 


Writing 
Time 


Percentage 
of Points 
Correct in 
Reproduc- 
tion — 


I 

7 

17 

10 

19 

24 

26 

31 

36 

41 

49 

45 

56 

54 


3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 
6 
7 

H.S. 
H.S. 

C. 

C. 


16 
29 
38 
44 
42 

37 
19 
27 
40 
47 
31 
38 
22 

31 


6 
7 
4 
2 
6 

7 
6 
8 
9 

5 

I 

5 
9 
9 


P 

G 
P 
G 
P 
G 
P 
G 
P 
G 
P 
G 
P 
G 


I . 6-1 . 4 

2.7-2.5 
2.1-1.5 
3.4-2.2 
30-2. 3 

43-3-7 
3-6-2. 9 
6 . 0-4 . 9 
2.7-2.3 
3-6-3.6 
2.3-2.0 
3-2-2.7 
2.9-2.3 
5.1-4.0 


22.2 

45-5 
29.6 
40.7 
30-5 
45-7 
23.1 

35-5 
27.1 

52.1 

15-2 

72.9 
19,8 
48.9 


7:05 
11:47 
9:17 
9:35 
7:34 
9:56 
4:00 
7:04 
5:00 
8:40 
3:04 
9: 10 

4:54 
5:21 


51 
68 

23 
33 
40 

36 
33 
40 
46 

45 


48 
23 
33 




4 
8 

3 

5 
2 
8 
8 



9 
9 
3 



Table XXIX gives the results. A final column, borrowed from 
Table XVII, p. 44, is added at the right of this table. This final 
column gives some comparative material of interest. Attention 



62 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



is called to the large variations in reading rate for oral repro- 
duction and to the fact that, except in the fifth grade, the good 
, readers reproduced more points than the poor readers. The range 
of points reproduced by poor readers is from i6 .6 to 42 .6 per cent, 
that by good readers from 27 .8 to 47 .5 per cent. In reproducing 
material which had been read to them the subjects show large 
variations in writing time, and in every case the good readers excel 
the poor readers. The range in points reproduced by the poor 
readers is from 15.2 to 30.5 per cent, that by good readers from 
35-5 to 72 .9 per cent. By comparing the third, sixth, and eighth 
columns we find that subjects Nos. i, 7, 26, 31, 36, and 56 reproduce 
more points in the earlier test than in either of the present ones. 

This same group of fourteen were given the part-whole test, the 
opposite test, the genus-species test, and the completion test to 
determine whether there was a difference in the amount of knowl- 
edge which the poor and good readers have of language forms and 
their meaning. These tests are summarized in Table XXX. In 
this table the first column shows the type of test; the second 
column, the number of words or elisions in each test; the third to 
sixth show the results; and the last column shows the grades in 
which the good readers fail to do better than the poor readers in the 
given test. 

TABLE XXX 

Summary of Seven Tests Gh^en Fourteen Selected Subjects 



Test 


Words or 
Elisions 


No. OF Attempts 


Range in Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Exceptions 


Poor 
Readers 


Good 
Readers 


Poor 
Readers 


Good 
Readers 


Grades 


Part- whole i.. . 
Part- whole 2 . . . 

Opposite 2 

Opposite 3 

Genus-species i 
Completion A . . 
Completion B . . 


20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
16 
21 


100 
114 
127 

82 
126 

91 
113 


108 
118 
140 
132 

137 
109 
144 


20-45 
10-60 
70-90 
10-65 
40-85 
18.7-93.7 
23.8-71.4 


40- 60 
55- 80 
80-100 
30- 80 
85-100 
75-100 
66.6- 95.2 


3 and 5 

C 
C 



3 

4 and 7 





Table XXX brings out the following points : 
I. In every case the good readers attempted more points than 
did the poor readers. , 



TESTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF READING ABILITY 63 

2. In every case the range of percentage of points correct for 
the good readers is higher than that of the poor readers. 

3. The number of exceptions in which the good reader fails to 
do better than the poor reader of his grade is small. The chances for 
such exceptions total forty-nine for all the tests, so that the excep- 
tions which do occur are 14 . 2 per cent of the total possibiHties. 

These results indicate clearly that good readers have greater 
ability in reacting to language sjTnbols and their meaning. Doubt- 
less this ability is one element which enters into rapid reading, just 
as the ability to react to certain number combinations is an element 
which makes for speed in arithmetical operations. 

In summarizing the tables presented in this chapter a great 
deal has been omitted which might have been said about individual 
cases. The later investigations to be reported in this paper take 
advantage of the personal information given in the tables but not 
commented on at length. 

Furthermore, there is some personal information not given in 
the tables, such as the following: One of the high-school pupils 
(No. 49) dropped out of school while in the grades. When a 
class in industrial training was organized in the University High 
school he entered. His mechanical work was so good that he was 
encouraged, after some work in the industrial class, to enter the 
high school as a regular student. His work in the academic sub- 
jects, where a large amount of reading is required, is very poor, 

TABLE XXXI 

Record or Sxjbject No. 22 in Silent Reading of Prose 



Selection 


Rate 


Questions 
Correct 


Selection 


Rate 


Questions 
Correct 


I 


2.3 
1-3 

I.O 

1-5 
•9 


4.0 
50 
4.0 

3-5 
2.0 


6 

7 

8 


1-7 

1-4 

1.0 

.8 


S-O 
1.0 

2.0 


2 

3 


4 





1-5 


c 









yet his mechanical work is of a very high order. One of his in- 
structors in shopwork says that the boy can interpret a blueprint 
as quickly as any boy who has had work in the shop. The tables 



64 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

show that this boy made a very poor record in all the tests so far 
given — a record which seems to indicate that his difficulty is more 
fundamental than anything revealed by the preceding tests. 

Another case very similar to the preceding one — namely, that 
of pupil No. 22 — shows difficulties of reading not quite so marked. 
This boy's reading also shows marked variations in rate both in 
silent and in oral reading. Table XXXI was compiled from the 
record of No. 22 to show how erratic is his record for nine passages 
which were all known to be of like difficulty for a large number of 
other readers. 



CHAPTER III 
MOTOR PHASES OF READING 

The preceding chapter has given data as to rate and quality 
of oral reading as well as rate and comprehension in silent reading. 
It is the purpose of this chapter to enter upon a detailed study of 
certain motor processes involved in reading, to determine whether 
any of the differences found in oral and silent reading are directly 
related to differences in motor processes. 

In order to get data on those phases of reading which are essen- 
tially motor in their nature, four records were made for each reader: 
first, the rate of vocaUzation was tested ; secondly, careful observa- 
tions were made on the amount of vocalization during silent read- 
ing; thirdly, pneumographic records of the breathing movements 
during oral reading were made ; and fourthly, eye-movement records 
were made for both oral and silent reading. 

RATE OF VOCALIZATION 

The test for rate of vocalization consisted in having the subjects 
pronounce as rapidly as possible lists of thirty easy words, taken 
from the selections used in the oral- and silent-reading tests. The 
same thirty words were arranged in three lists, with the order of 
the words reversed in the second list and entirely rearranged in the 
third. The time for each list was taken and the rate determined. 

A second test with the same general purpose consisted in having 
the subject count repeatedly from i to lo as rapidly as possible for 
thirty seconds. The total number counted was recorded, and the 
number counted per second calculated. The much higher rate for 
counting than for pronouncing, as shown in Table XXXII, is 
probably due to the fact that in counting the subject knows just 
what is to follow in each case. Then, too, in the case of the num- 
erals all the words were monosyllables except one, while in the lists 
of words twenty were monosyllables, nine had two syllables, and 
one had three. It is true in general that the rate in counting is 

6s 



66 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



greater than the rate in reading, while rate of pronouncing lists of 
words falls between the maximum and minimum reading rate of a 
person, usually nearer the minimum than the maximum. 

TABLE XXXII 
Record of All Subjects in Vocalization Tests 



Grade 


Subject 


Pro- 
nouncing 
Rate 


Counting 
Rate 


Oral- 
Reading 
Rate 


Grade 


Subject 


Pro- 
nouncing 
Rate 


Counting 
Rate 


Oral- 
Reading 
Rate 




I 


0.8 


S-3 


2.5-0.8 




' 2,2, 


1.9 


6.0 


3.9-1-3 




2 


1.9 


4.0 


3-3-I-5 




34 


I-S 


6.0 


3.5-1.0 




3 


1.9 


5-3 


4.8-1.3 




35 


1-7 


5.0 


3.7-0.8 




4 


2.3 


S-O 


3.4-1.2 




36 


2.4 


4.7 


37-0. 9 


3 


■ 5 


1. 1 


4-3 


2.3-1. I 


7.... 


• 37 


2-4 


6.3 


4 . 6-1 . 




6 


1-3 


3-0 


2.7-1.3 




38 


2.4 


4.6 


3.6-0.9 




7 


i-S 


2.6 


2 . 9-1 . 8 




39 


1.6 


4.3 


4.3-1.3 




8 


0.4 


3-6 


I . 7-0 . 8 




40 


2.5 


5.3 


4.1-1.7 




. 9 


0.8 


4-7 


2.7-1.3 




I 41 


1.9 


5.0 


4.I-1.6 




lO 


2.2 


5-7 


3-8-1.2 




' 42 


2.3 


6.3 


5-2-2.4 




II 


2.2 


6.3 


4.3-1.4 




43 


2.4 


5.3 


4.1-2.2 




12 


1.9 


S-7 


3.7-0.8 




44 


1.5 


5-3 


3-7-0.9 


4 


13 


1.6 


5-3 


2.8-0.6 




45 


2.5 


6.3 


4.8-1.8 




14 


1.2 


4-3 


2 . 9-0 . 8 


H.S.. 


46 


2.2 


6.6 


5.4-2.2 




IS 


1.2 


6.3 


2 . 6-0 . 7 




47 


1-7 


4.0 


4.3-1.9 




16 


1-4 


S-o 


3.2-1.0 




48 


2.4 


6.0 


4.6-1.7 




. 17 


1-5 


4-7 


2.7-0.8 




49 
50 


1.9 
3-1 


5.3 
6.6 


3.7-1.0 
5.3-2.1 




' 18 


2.0 


5-7 


3.8-1.0 




I 51 


2.8 


5.3 


4.4-1.6 




19 


1.8 


5-5 


3.1-0.6 














20 


2.0 


6.0 


3.3-1.3 




■ 52 


2.5 


5.6 


5.4-1.9 


s 


21 


1-7 


4.3 


4.8-1.0 




53 


2.7 


5.6 


4.8-2.2 




22 


1.8 


3-7 


3.5-1.2 




54 


2.9 


5.0 


4.5-1-8 




23 


2.0 


4-7 


4.3-1.0 


C . .. 


55 


2.0 


30 


4 . 0-2 . I 




24 


2-3 


4-3 


3 8-0. 9 




56 


2.5 


6.3 


4.8-1.7 




I 25 


1-7 


4.6 


3.2-0.7 




57 
58 


2.4 
2.1 


4.7 
6.6 


4.9-2.1 
4.1-1.9 




' 26 


1.6 


6.0 


3.2-0.6 




I 59 


2.5 


6.0 


5-0-1.3 




27 


2.5 


5-3 


3.7-1.3 














28 


2.2 


4-3 


3-8-0.9 












6 


29 


2.3 


5-5 


3.7-1.3 














30 


1.9 


4-7 


3.7-1.7 














31 


2.1 


5-0 


4 . 6-1 . 6 














I 32 


2.0 


5-0 


3.4-1. I 













An interesting point in this connection is that some rapid 
counters are not the most rapid readers, as is seen in the cases of 
Nos. 26, 33, and 34. On the other hand, in most cases those who 
pronounce the list of words rapidly read rapidly, as seen in the 
records for Nos. 42, 50, and 59, and those who pronounce the words 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 67 

most slowly, as Nos. i, 8, and 9, are slow readers. It has already 
been stated that the list was composed of easy words and, as such, 
must have been more familiar to the subjects in the upper grades 
than to those in the lower grades. This indicates that mere 
familiarity with the language forms influences the rate of reading, 
as has been suggested in the preceding pages. 

Doubtless some of the differences exhibited in the rate of pro- 
nouncing words is due to the fact that the vocal reactions of certain 
subjects are more rapid than those of others, but this would hardly 
account for the fairly consistent increase which is to be noted as 
the higher grades are reached. This increase from grade to grade 
is shown in Table XXXIII, which shows the percentage of subjects 
having a rate of pronouncing which is two words or more per 
second. 

TABLE XXXIII 

Increase in Pronouncing Rate According 
TO Grade 

Percentage of 
Grade Subjects 

3 II 

4 25 

5 50 

6 71 

7 44 

H.S 70 

C 100 

These results show six different degrees of attainment. The first 
of these is represented by the third grade; the second, by the fourth 
grade; the third, by the seventh grade; the fourth, by the 
fifth grade; the fifth, by the sixth grade and high-school subjects; 
and the last is represented by the college group. No satisfactory 
explanation of why the seventh grade is so low can be made. With 
this exception a consistent increase is to be noted as we ascend the 
scale. The increase in rate of counting is not great enough to 
indicate that there has been any large increase in the rate of articu- 
lation in the upper grades. It seems evident, therefore, that 
increasing familiarity with the words is an important factor in 
producing the result in the pronunciation test. 



68 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

Table XXXIV shows the facts regarding counting and confirms 
the general statement made above. This table presents the per- 
centage of subjects in the various grades who have a rate of counting 

TABLE XXXIV 
Counting Rate According to Grade 

Percentage of 
Grade Subjects 

3 2>2> 

4 75 

5 37 

6 71 

7 66 

H.S 90 

C 75 

of five or more words per second. The absence of any uniformity 
in these results indicates that difference in rates of counting is a 
matter of individual rates of reaction and not subject to change 
through training. In counting there is a tendency to slur over 
words. This fact may contribute to certain of the differences in 
the table. Indeed, the counting test seems to show the physio- 
logical limit for rate of articulation. The impressive fact in that 
column of Table XXXII is its uniformity rather than its variations. 
In the reading test the two factors of rate of mere articulation 
and rate due to familiarity with the words are of course both 
included. Later investigations will return to the analysis here 
suggested. 

VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 

While each subject was taking the silent-reading tests a note 
was made of the amount of vocalization. Four degrees of vocaliza- 
tion are recorded in Table XXXV as follows: very much, three 
asterisks; much, two asterisks; little, one asterisk; none per- 
ceptible, zero. 

The following points are apparent in connection with this table : 

1. The greatest amount of vocalization occurs in the third and 
fourth grades. 

2. Those who are given either two or three asterisks do not 
read with a rate which exceeds 5.9. In the group of fourteen 
subjects who are given two or three asterisks, only three have a 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



69 



rate above 4.0; therefore in a large majority of cases a high degree 
of vocalization is related to slow reading. 

TABLE XXXV 

Amount of Vocalization Shown by Each Subject in Silent Reading 



Grade 


Subject 


Amount of 
Vocalization 


Range in Silent 
Rate 


Grade 


Subject 


Amount of 
Vocalization 


Range in Silent 
Rate 




I 


** 


3I-I-3 




' S3 


* 


4.1-2.5 




2 





4-5-2. S 




34 





3 


4-1.3 




3 


** 


3.6-2.1 




35 





3 


0-1.9 




4 


** 


4. 1-2. 2 




36 


« 


3 


4-1.9 


3 


5 


** 


I. 9-1. 5 


7 


37 


* 


4 


1-1.6 




6 





3-3-19 




38 


** 


5 


9-2.0 




7 


* 


5-8-2.5 




39 





5 


9-2.8 




8 


4c* 


I . 9-0 . 8 




40 


* 


4 


6-2.4 




, 9 


*** 


2.5-1.9 




. 41 


* 


3 


5-2.1 




10 


** 


3.1-1.7 




' 42 





4 


9-2.5 




n 


** 


2.7-1.6 




43 





6 


5-3 5 




12 


* 


3.0-1.6 




44 


* 


4 


7-2.0 


4 


13 


* 


2.4-1.3 




45 


* 


3 


9-2.6 




14 


** 


3-4-1-5 


H.S. . 


46 


* 


4 


6-1.9 




15 


* 


2.2-1.0 




47 





6 


5-3-3 




16 


** 


2 . 9-0 . 9 




48 





4 


I-I.8 




. 17 


** 


2.0-1.2 




49 





3 


1-1.4 












50 


* 


5 


1-2. 1 




■ 18 


* 


3.1-1.7 




I 51 





4 


6-2.1 




19 


* 


2.9-1. 2 














20 





3.1-1.2 




' 52 


* 


8 


2-3-8 


5 


21 


* 


3-5-I-5 




53 





8 


2-3.1 




22 


2 


2.3-0-8 




54 





8 


2-3-4 




23 


* 


3.8-1.4 


C... 


55 





4 


1-2.4 




24 


* 


4. 1-2. I 




56 


* 


6 


&-3-3 




I 25 





3.0-1.2 




57 





10 


0-3.6 












58 


* 


6 


8-3-1 




' 26 





2.9-0.8 




I 59 





6 


0-2.8 




27 


* 


5-3-1-8 












28 


** 


3-7-1-3 










6 


29 

30 

31 

I 32 


* 

* 




4.i-2> I 
6.0-4.3 
5.6-2.5 
4 . 6-1 . 6 











3. In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades the most rapid 
reader is marked v^ith one asterisk, while in the seventh grade, as 
well as in the high-school and college groups, the most rapid readers 
are marked without perceptible vocaHzation. 

4. Evidently some other factor than vocahzation retards the 
reading of subjects Nos. 22 and 26, whose rates are below 3.0, and 
No. 55, whose rate is 4.0. 



70 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

The conclusions to be reached here are as follows : 

a) A large amount of vocalization appears in connection with 
slow reading. 

b) Rapid reading is possible with a slight degree of vocalization. 

c) The absence of vocalization is not the only factor which 
makes for fast reading. 

BREATHING IN RELATION TO ORAL READING 

In order to secure data on the relation of oral reading to the 
act of respiration, pneumographic records were taken while the 
subject was reading aloud. A modification of the Verdun pneumo- 
graph was used. In Fig. i the recording end of the ordinary form 
of this instrument is shown by the continuous lines, while the 
author's addition to it is indicated by the dotted lines. The plate 
A keeps the pneumograph from turning up or down, while the lever 
B always allows an outward pull on the rubber membrane at C. 
This lever is very essential because in the case of children who have 
a small chest the pull in the ordinary form of the apparatus is likely 
to be almost parallel with the surface of the rubber membrane, 
that is, in the direction of the point C In such cases the pull on 
the rubber may be considerable, yet the change in volume will be 
very slight, and the record taken is not a true representation of the 
breathing movements. 

The records were always taken with the pneumographs over the 
clothing, except that the boys were asked to remove their coats. 
One pneumograph was placed over the lower thorax, and the other 
at about the fourth or fifth rib. The pneumographs were connected 
with tambours, the markers of which traced the record on kymo- 
graph paper. The subject read into a dictaphone. A revolving 
cam on the dictaphone operated an electric marker at regular inter- 
vals. The movements of this marker were registered alongside the 
pneumograph records. Synchronous with this marker a solenoid 
sounded a bell, which was recorded on the wax cylinder of the 
dictaphone. This made it possible to tell what words in the oral 
record corresponded to certain points on the breathing curves. 

After the apparatus was adjusted the subject was allowed to 
sit quietly for a short time until the normal-breathing curve was 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



71 



recorded. The signal to begin reading was then given and the 
exact point of beginning was indicated on the record. The place 
on the record where the reading ended was also marked, and the 
subject was allowed to sit quietly until breathing became normal. 




— .C 



B 



i--:;:-:-:.-.-r-rt^-f?^ 
--K"^\ 










( < 
I I 



~>iK^ 



tz.-=;:i=x.. 



Fig. I. — Modified Verdun pneumograph 
A— Plate to hold pneumograph in position 
B — Lever 
C — Rubber membrane 



The records were taken on a kymograph with an extension. 
This gave a record two meters in length and allowed a much larger 
body of material to be read than with the ordinary form of k3mio- 
graph. A time line recording fifths of a second was made by means 
of a Jacquet chronometer. Three selections varying in difficulty 
were read. 



72 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

Plates I, II, III, and IV show typical breathing curves. Plate I 
shows a breast curve, the time line, and the signal, the first part of 
the record being the normal-breathing curve, with the length of 
inspiration represented by the distances AB and CD. The signal 
to read is given at E. It will be noted that the expiration is com- 
pleted in the normal way, but the inspiration following it (FG) is 
very much shorter. Inspirations at H and K are quick and the 
breath is expired very slowly. The effect of oral reading is to 
reduce in a very considerable degree the length of inspiration and 
to increase the length of expiration, as indicated by the distances 
GH and IK. 

Plate II shows both the breast curve and the abdominal curve 
and the time line. The two breathing curves are so much alike 
that they might be interchanged. Inspiration takes place in the 
relatively short time in which the pneumographic pointer moves 
from A to B,C to D, etc. In this particular record inspiration time 
scarcely exceeds three-fifths of a second at any point. Expiration 
is a gradual process and takes place while the pointer moves from 
B to C, from D to E, etc. 

Plate III shows two breathing curves. It is true that there is 
regularity, but there is a marked difference between the forms of 
the breast and abdominal curves. The abdominal curve is much 
like those shown in Plate II, while the breast curve is entirely 
different. Instead of showing a gradual expiration or an upward 
movement of the curve during the reading pause, as in Plate II, 
there seems to be little expiration during the reading. Then comes 
a sudden expiration, followed by a quick inspiration. This t);pe 
of breathing is controlled to a large extent by the diaphragm, and 
the training given by some teachers of vocal music and public 
speaking is said to result in this type of reaction. 

Plate IV is of the same type as Plate I. It shows a record in 
which, however, the movement in the breast curve is much greater 
than that in the abdominal curve. In many other cases, which 
cannot be reproduced in full, the movement is as great as, or greater 
than, that shown here. There is little if any correspondence in 
Plate IV between the two curves, no trace of regularity in the 
abdominal curve, and very marked regularity in the breast curve. 



(O U 


V 


H 


S 3 


B 


o 


IH ^ 






pq 


*H 


w 



M- 



H 




Pi 

< 

o 

o 



a 

< 
w 

U 

o 

W 

H 

< 



pq 



a = 

O 4) 

^ .S 



fn- 



W — 



: ^ 



3 H 



W 
H 

Ph 



m 



m 



u- 



PQ — 



< — 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 75 

The length of the expiration in the breast curve extends over a 
period of eleven and three-fifths seconds, a length which is not at 
all infrequent. 

Plate V shows the record of a seventh-grade boy. The electric 
marker, which made the third record from the top in this plate, 
was operating synchronous with a bell, the sound of which was 
registered on the wax cylinder of a dictaphone. The vertical lines 
I, 2, 3, etc., marked across the record, indicate the points at which 
the stroke of the bell sounded. The selection read is reproduced 
herewith — selection 5 (p. 77). On this are marked with numbers 
the points corresponding to the points i, 2, 3, etc., in Plate V. 

In taking the vocal records off the cylinders it is impossible to 
get the exact location of the sound. The difficulty arises from the 
fact that the individual who is taking the record has to listen to two 
things — the sound of the bell and the vocal sounds recorded. There 
results a fluctuation of attention, which makes it impossible to get 
the exact location of the sound of the bell. It is possible, however, 
to tell whether the bell comes before, after, or within, a short word, 
and whether it falls within the first or last part of a long word. 
The passage is also marked with lettered lines. These show where 
the reader paused in his oral reading. These pauses were pauses 
for emphasis and will be discussed more fully later. 

Plate VI gives the record for a sixth-grade boy, while Plate VII 
shows the record of a seventh-grade boy. The corresponding 
reading material is reproduced in selections 6 and 7, respectively 
(pp. 77, 79). The words in parentheses are either insertions or 
repetitions made by the reader. 

In the case recorded in Plate VII the reading was poor, and the 
phonograph record contained a large number of hesitations, many 
of which broke the continuity of the reading. It is impossible in 
this record to tell which are sense pauses and which are merely 
hesitations. 

If the sense pauses in the selection which accompanies Plate V 
are studied in detail, it is seen that pauses h, d, f, and h seem to 
coincide with breathing pauses, but the others do not. 

If Plates VI and VII are studied, there is revealed the same 
accidental or only partial relation between the breathing and sense 



< 




112 



SCO 



UN 



n.<£) 



-lin 



=1^ 



pq 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 77 

pauses. These facts make it evident that articulation and oral 
emphasis are two independent processes. Respiration, which is a 
part of the physiological process of articulation, often goes on with- 
out modification, while the demands of emphasis are being met 

Selection 5.— BREAxmNc 

This one was evidently very old, for 

it had been weathered and wasted until it 

was the most dangerous and inaccessible that 

ever lay in my way. The width of the cre- 

a. I 
vasse was here about fifty feet, /and / the 

silver crossing diagonally// was about (twenty) 

seventy fe/t long; /its thin knife-edge /near 

the middle /was depressed/ twenty-five or 

f i, 79 

thirty feet //below the level of tHe glacier,/ 

and the upcurving ends were attach«W/to the 

sides eight or/ ten feet below the brink./ 



Selection 6. — BREATmNC 

/ a. Z 

This one wi{s evidently very old,/ for U had 

6 3 

been weathered/ and wasted/ until it was the 

c ¥ <t s 

most dangerous/ and i}f{accessible/that ever \^y 

e f> 

in my way./ The width of tpe crevasse was here 

/ 7 
about fifty feet, //and the silver crossing 

f ^/. 

diagonally was about seventy feet long;// its 

thin knife-edge/ near the middle was depressed 

// 
twenty-^e or thirty feet below the level of 

/Z k 

the glacier./ 

through pauses dictated by the sense of the passage rather than by 
respiration. In the long run respiration has to be controlled in the 
interests of interpretation rather than the reverse, but evidently 
the control is not complete. 



(0 



2 W 

H 

m 
> 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 79 

Table XXXVI gives in the case of fourteen subjects the length 
of time which elapses from the end of one expiration to the end 
of the next. To secure these facts perpendiculars are dropped 
from the breathing records to the time line, care being taken to 
start the perpendicular at the highest point of the curve. In the 
case of subject No. i nineteen-fifths seconds elapsed between the 
end of the first expiration and the end of the second, eight-fifths 
seconds between the ends of the second and third expiration, 

Selection 7.- — Breathing 

This / one was evidently very old//, 
3 
for it had been weathered/ and wasted until 

it was the most dangerous/ and inaccessible/ 

that// ever lay in my way.// The width of the 

7 e r 

crevasse was here about fifty feet//, and the 

silver crossing// (diag silver crossing) 

diagonal/y was about/ sev/nty feet \on%i I its 

thin knife-edge/ nea/ the middl/i was depressed 

k if^ 
twenty-five or thirty feet below the level// 

I ts /<> m 

of the glacier// and the upcurving ends w;ere/ 

n 17 o p If 

attached/ to the/ sides/ eight or ten ieQ\./ / below 
^ f r s 

the brink/: Getting down/ the nearly vertical/ 



wall. 



and so on. The large individual variations, as well as the large 
variations within the records of single individuals, show that 
articulation and interpretative emphasis are playing havoc with a 
physiological process which is ordinarily very regular. The sudden 
changes in respiration revealed in this table show how constant 
is the influence of the mental process of interpretation on the 
physiological process of respiration. 

Table XXXVII gives further qualitative data concerning the 
curves for all subjects. No abdominal records were taken for the 
high-school or college girls. In a few cases the apparatus failed 
to work properly for one of the curves. These explanations account 



8o 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



for the blanks in the table. The degree to which the records showed 
correspondence between abdominal and breast curves, deep breath- 
ing, regularity of the breast curve, and regularity of the abdominal 
curve was estimated by the experimenter and has been indicated 
in the table by three asterisks for a large degree, two asterisks for a 
medium degree, and one asterisk for a very slight degree. 

TABLE XXXVI 

Length of Breathing Periods during Reading 



Grade 


Subject 


Breathing Periods 






















1 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 




3 


{ 5 


19 

15 


8 
IS 


20 


17 
IS 


14 
13 


2S 
14 


iS-7 
iS-3 


4 


/ 12 

\ IS 


24 
9 


13 

7 


17 
13 


20 
9 


26 
9 


12 

6 


18.7 
8.8 


5 


I 24 


14 
19 


13 
14 


16 
18 


9 
17 


IS 
14 


IS 
13 


13-7 
iS-8 


6 


/ 28 

I 30 


19 
26 


14 
16 


12 
31 


13 
10 


12 
II 


s 
31 


12. 5 
20.8 


7 


/ 33 
\ 37 


IS 
22 


23 
IS 


28 
24 


21 
16 


19 
6 


27 

10 


22.2 
iS-S 


H.S.... 


/ 42 
\ SI 


33 
20 


22 
24 


20 
14 


8 
14 


9 

18 


18 
17 


18.3 
17.8 


C 


/ 54 
I S6 


12 
36 


21 
36 


9 
12 


IS 
16 


18 
18 


29 
28 


173 

24-3 



In nineteen of the twenty-six cases listed the breast curve has 
greater movement than the abdominal curve. Of the nineteen 
cases, eight were girls and eleven boys. Correspondence between 
the two curves is not shown in a marked degree except in five cases. 

Depth of breathing increases with progress through the grades, 
though somewhat irregularly. The fourth grade seems to have less 
depth of breathing than any other grade, while the high-school 
group does not show as great depth as either the seventh grade or 
the college group. There is a decided increase in the regularity 
of the breast curve in the high-school and college groups. Marked 
regularity in the abdominal curve is shown in only four cases. 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



TABLE XXXVII 

Data Concerning Breathing Curves for All Subjects 



Grade 


Subject 


Greater 
Movement 


Correspond- 
ence between 
Abdominal 
and fireast 
Curves 


Depth of 
Breathing 


Regularity of 
Breast Curve 


Regularity of 

Abdominal 

Curve 




I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 
14 
15 
i6 

17 
i8 
19 

20 
21 

22 

23 
24 

I 25 

26 
27 
28 
29 

3° 

31 

I 32 

33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 

39 

40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 

49 

SO 

I 51 




*** 


** 

* 
* 
** 
** 
** 
** 
* 
** 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
** 
* 
* 
** 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
** 
* 
** 
** 
** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

* 

** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

** 
** 
** 

* 
** 

* 

* 
** 
** 

* 


** 

* 
* 


** 












* 


* 






** 


^ 






* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

*** 

* 
* 








*** 

* 
* 


** 


• 


Br.t 


* 
* 










Br. 


* 

** 

** 

* 

*** 

* 

* 

*** 


* 

* 


4 


Ab.t 
Br. 
Br. 
Br. 


* 
* 




* 
* 






*** 




Br. 
Br. 
Br. 
Br. 
Ab. 
Br. 
Br. 
Br. 

Ab. 
Br. 
Br. 
Ab. 






* 

* 


* 

* 


c 


* 
* 
* 
* 
** 

* 
* 

* 

* 

*** 

* 

** 

* 

* 

* 

*** 

* 
* 




6 


* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
*** 
* 
* 

** 

* 


* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 




*** 




Br. 
Br. 


* 




Br. 


* 


7 


Ab. 
Br. 


* 
* 


*** 

* 












* 






** 
* 


* 
* 

*** 

*** 

*** 

** 

*** 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 


* 






* 










Ab. 


* 


*** 










H.S 












* 


* 










Ab. 


* 


* 




Br. 


* 


* 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 
TABLE XKKVn.— Continued 



Grade 



Subject 



Greater 
Movement 



Correspond- 
ence between 
Abdominal 
and Breast 
Curves 



Deep 
Breathing 


Regularity of 
Breast Curve 


*** 


*** 


*** 


*** 


*** 


** 


** 


* 


** 


*** 


inm 


*** 


*** 


*** 


** 


*** 



Regularity of 

Abdominal 

Curve 



52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
S8 
59 



t Br. = breast curve. - 
J Ab. = abdominal curve. 

No clear parallelism could be traced between the different 
qualities of oral reading and the breathing co-ordinations. The 
curve in Plate II, which is the record of a very good reader (No. 30 
in Table XXXVII), shows great regularity and little depth. The 
curve in Plate III, which is the record of a poor reader (No. 36 in 
Table XXXVII), shows great regularity and slightly greater depth 
of breathing than is shown in Plate II. The curve in Plate IV 
was made by a poor reader (No. 29). In this record the lack of 
correspondence between the abdominal and breast curves is very 
striking, and yet there is exhibited in the breast curve marked 
depth of breathing and length of the expiration period. Plate V 
is a record of a good reader (No. 41), while Plates VI and VII were 
produced by medium readers (Nos. 28 and 33). 

Individual variations are more conspicuous than any regular 
relationship between respiration and reading ability. It is possible 
to trace in a loose general way some parallelism between regularity 
in breathing and good reading. Apparently the individual who 
has good muscular co-ordinations has also superior ability in reading. 
But such a parallelism is only very vaguely shown by the records. 

The conclusion to which we are led is that breathing is very 
little considered in ordinary school training. As a result the 
accidents of individual experience control. 

A very interesting problem for further work could be found in 
experimental training in breathing as a part of a course in oral 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 83 

reading. Many teachers of public speaking emphasize the matter 
of breathing, but there are no records from the pupils of these 
teachers to compare with the records presented above. 



EYE-MOVEMENTS 

APPARATUS 

The apparatus used for the experiments with eye-movements 
was a modified form of the photographic apparatus used by Dodge 
and by Dearborn. It consists essentially of four parts: an arc 
light, from which is derived the ray of light to be photographed; a 
headrest, to keep the subject in position; the camera; and the 
mechanism for moving the film on which the record is taken. 

The light.^The source of light was an ordinary arc with an 
adjustable rheostat attached, so that from 15 to 25 amperes of 
current could be used. The light from this arc was passed through 
a double convex lens and cooling tank and was focused on a small 
hole in a diaphragm which cut off all marginal light. A fifty- 
vibration tuning fork was so placed between the lamp and dia- 
phragm that one of the prongs vibrated through the path of the 
light and cut it off fifty times a second. This device has the 
advantage of turning the photograph into a time record. Beyond 
the diaphragm, as the light was diverging, it was passed through 
a double convex lens,, placed at focal distance from the diaphragm. 
This lens directed the light into a series of parallel rays. A plate 
of violet glass, placed in the path of the parallel rays, reduced the 
intensity of the light falling on the eyes, until it was not noticed 
in most cases by the reader. The light then passed to two small 
mirrors just in front of the subject, was reflected into the subject's 
eyes, and from the eyes was reflected into the lenses of the camera. 
Fig. 2 shows the different parts of the apparatus just described. 

The headrest. — The headrest is necessary to hold the head in 
position while the photograph is being taken. Since most of the 
subjects were children, it was thought best not to use the mouth- 
piece described by Dearborn, but rather to clamp the head above 
the eyes as firmly as possible. This was done by means of a band 
which encircled the head with four points of contact — one on the 



84 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



"ill 
u f^ u 




MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



8S 



forehead, two on the temples, and one at the back. In addition 
to this the cheek bones were brought into contact with supports. 
While these six points of contact did not eliminate all movements 
of the head, the complications from head-movement were much 
reduced. Furthermore, from check photographs it was possible to 
recognize head-movements. The check photographs were made by 
photographing the light reflected from a polished bead set in spec- 




A — Contacts for checks 
B and C — Band for head 
E — Contacts for head 



Fig. 3. — ^The headrest 

tacle frames and worn by the subject. The headrest is shown in 

Fig- 3- 

The camera.— This was constructed so that simultaneous photo- 
graphs could be taken from the two eyes. The lenses used are 
Goerz-Syntor, 12-inch focus. The mounting was necessarily com- 
plicated, in order that the focus might be accommodated to each 
individual subject. One adjustment was provided so that the two 
lenses could be separated or brought near together. A second 
adjustment allowed the left lens to move independently in a vertical 
direction. A third and fourth adjustment allowed the camera as 



86 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

a whole to be moved horizontally or vertically. A fifth and sixth 
adjustment permitted the lenses to be focused by independent 
movements forward or backward or by a movement of the film- 
holder. All of these adjustments could be made from the back 
by the operator by means of rods and screws. The body of the 
camera was made of a brass tube, eight inches in diameter 
and four feet in length. At the back end of this was placed the 
usual camera bellows, which allowed adjustments. Since the 
records were all taken in a light room, a focusing bellows was 
provided back of the film-holder. Fig. 4 shows the camera. 

The moving film. — The film used is the twelve-exposure Eastman 
Kodak film. The length is about i . 2 meters. The mechanism 
for carrying the film is shown in Fig. 5. The apparatus was so 
constructed that two films could be set in motion at the same time, 
one moving vertically, the other moving horizontally, or a single 
film could be used. In general only the vertically moving film was 
used. If the vertical film alone is used, it unrolls from the spool C 
to a spool carried between D and E. The driving power is applied 
to the rod D by a motor (not shown in the figure) . The exposure of 
the film during its movement is made as it passes the area A , where 
the image falls from the lenses. 

When a horizontal fiJm is used, it unrolls from a spool at G to a 
spool at F. The spool at F is moved by the rod D through the gear 
shoAATi in the figure. Exposure of the two fihns at the same time 
can be made by focusing one point, that to be photographed on the 
horizontal film in the area B, while the point to be photographed 
on the vertically moving film is focused in A , 

The rod D was driven by an electric motor. This motor was 
started at the beginning of the experiment, and the rod D was con- 
nected with the motor at any time which the experimenter chose 
by means of an electric clutch. 

THE EXPOSURE APPABATUS 

In order to control readily the reading matter, it was projected 
from a lantern hung on a separate holder above the camera. The 
image was reflected from a silvered surface to a plaster-of-Paris 
surface just below the lenses of the camera. The subject could here 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



87 



<--r 




05 to 

I •§ 

" 3 

•o ,0 

e Ui 

^ I 

< n 



88 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



read it readily, while the operator could control its appearance and 
disappearance as well as its size through the projection lantern. 
Fig. 6 shows this apparatus. 

All selections to be read were photographed and made into 
lantern slides. Each slide was made, furthermore, with a point 
outside of the reading matter which the reader was required to 
fixate in order to facihtate interpretation of the photographs of 
eye-movements, when these had to be related to the reading matter, 
by methods to be described later. 




Fig. 5. — Mechanism for moving films 



In taking the photographs the subject was seated before the 
apparatus in a chair which could be adjusted as to height. When a 
correct position had been assumed, a trial selection was thrown 
upon the plaster-of-Paris surface, and the subject was informed 
just how the dots were to be fixated. Since it was found that 
merely telling the subject what to do was not sufiicient in many 
cases, some preliminary practice was given in the filiation of the 
dots and in starting the reading. Sometimes several trials were 
necessary before the experiment proceeded. When this preliminary 
part was over, the head was clamped firmly in the headrest and the 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



89 




^ 



I 



90 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

light was thrown on the eyes. The subject was asked whether any 
discomfort was felt from the light. In only two cases was any 
complaint made, and each of these children was dismissed imme- 
diately. The light from the eyes was focused next on the ground 
glass in the back part of the camera. The subject closed his eyes 
while the film was adjusted, and the selection to be read was placed 
in the projector. As soon as all was in readiness the subject was 
told to open his eyes and proceed with the reading. While the 
process is complicated, yet in most cases a record could be taken 
in three minutes or less. 

In many cases, when the reading was over the child was ques- 
tioned to see whether the selection had been understood, and in 
most cases the results indicated that it had been. 

The question may arise as to the attitude which the children 
took toward the experiments involving the use of apparatus and as 
to the extent to which the artificial conditions of the experiment 
affected their reading. The children of this particular school are 
called on to act as subjects in so many types of experiments through- 
out the year that they become accustomed to such work. In addi- 
tion, however, precautions were taken to prepare them for the 
photographs. A part of the apparatus was in full view when they 
came into the laboratory for the first oral- and silent-reading tests. 
This led to questions as to the purpose ' ' of all those fixings. ' ' They 
were told about the photographs and always took an interest. In 
a few cases, where a little nervousness was shown, the children were 
allowed to read three selections instead of two, and no record was 
taken of the first reading. i 

UNSATISFACTORY RECORDS 

Satisfactory records could not be obtained from a few of the 
subjects whose eyes did not seem to reflect the light in a sufficient 
quantity to affect the film, while in other cases, in spite of all pre- 
cautions, head-movements were so great that the records had to be 
discarded. It is rather interesting that those whose records were dis- 
carded on account of head-movements werein every case poorreaders. 

Some of the records are shown in Plates VIII and IX. A very 
clear record is C in Plate VIII. This record, it will be noted, is 



PLATE VIII 




Eye-Movement Records 

A and B, the record of a poor reader (B. R.) in the sixth grade; 
C, a good reader in the same grade; D shows loop made by eye in 
focusing dots before reading begins. The straight Hne in this record is 
made by the bead. E shows binocular record of an adult reading poetry 
for the purpose of answering questions upon it. 



^/ ?0 



•^ i 




Eye-Movement Records 



^y ^odt 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 91 

made up of a series of dots. As explained in describing the ap- 
paratus, the light is interrupted every fiftieth part of a second by a 
tuning fork, hence the dots. The photograph shows two kinds of 
lines — first, short vertical lines; secondly, horizontal lines. The 
vertical stretches mean fixations of the eye. Since the film is 
moving vertically downward, the pencil of light will trace a vertical 
line so long as the eye is fixated in a single position. As soon as 
the eye moves to the right or the left, the pencil of light will trace a 
horizontal line. The direction of the eye-movement is indicated 
by the direction of the horizontal line away from the vertical. The 
short horizolital movements show how the eye moves across a line 
of printed matter in short steps. The long sweep back to the begin- 
ning of the next line is easily distinguished from the short move- 
ments. In some cases there is a short backward movement within 
the line. Such short movements will be called regressive move- 
ments. 

The first part of the study of these records consists in determin- 
ing the total number of pauses for each line, the length of the pauses 
in fiftieths of a second, and their average variation. In addition 
to this, the number of regressive movements for each line, together 
with their length and average variation, must also be determined. 

Table XXXVIII gives the average number of pauses per line, 
the average length of the pauses, the average of the mean variations, 
etc., for all subjects for whom satisfactory records were procured. 
The last column is taken from the silent-reading rates, Table XI, 
page 37. 

In connection with these data the following points may be made: 

1 . Those who make nine or more pauses do not have a rate which 
exceeds 3.8 words per second. This evidently means that, when 
the numjjer of pauses is nine or more, perception takes place in 
small units and rapid reading is impossible. 

2. If the subjects whose average number of pauses per line is 
between 7.0 and 8.9 are canvassed, it will be seen that their rates 
vary from 2.4 to 1.3 for subject No. 13 to 8. 2 to 3. i for subject 
No. 53. In other words, with this number of fixations there may 
be variations in the gross rate depending on factors other than the 
number of pauses. 



92 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



TABLE XXXVIII 

Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records dj Silent Reading 



Grade 


Subject 


Average 

No. of 

Pauses per 

Line 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 
for Length 
of Pauses 


Average 
No. of 
Regressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Variation 
for Length 
of Regres- 
sive Move- 
ments 


Silent- 
Reading 
Rate 


3 


I 

2 

3 

t 

7 
8 

. 9 


13-8 
7-9 

9-2 

6.2 

7-3 

7-1 

14.0 

14-5 


18.2 

13-5 
12.9 

12.8 

15-6 

II. 8 
15-6 
13 -I 


6.9 
3-6 
4.0 
2.1 

5-2 

2.2 

4-2 

4.8 


4-1 
2.0 
4.0 
0-3 

I.O 

1-3 
3-0 
3-5 


19.6 
14.6 
13-3 
3-7 
8-5 
12.2 
16.6 
II. 


6.2 
2.8 

3-9 
0.0 

0-5 
0. 2 
I.I 
3-5 


3-1-1-3 
4-5-2.5 
3.6-2.1 
4.1-2.2 

3-3-1-9 
5-8-2.5 
1.9-0.8 
2.5-1.9 


Average . 




10. 

6.7 

5-6 

II. 

7-4 

12.3 

"•5 


14.2 

10.9 
10.5 


41 

2-3 
2-7 


2-4 

0.9 
1.2 

4-5 
1.6 

3-0 
1-5 


12.4 

5-9 
9-5 


2-3 

0-3 
1.0 






lO 

11 

12 

13 

15 
I 17 


3 - I-I - 7 
2.7-1.6 
3.0-1.6 

2-4-1-3 
2 . 2-1 . 
2.0-1.2 


4 












16.9 
II. 9 


3-7 

2-9 


15-2 

15-5 


2-5 

1-5 


Average . 




9.1 

9.0 
10.7 

7.0 
13.0 

10.3 

7.0 

13-0 


12.5 

14.7 
11.3 
14-5 


2-9 

4-3 
3-3 

4.2 


2.1 
1.0 

3-2 

1.0 

4.3 
1.0 
2.0 
4.5 


11-5 

8.6 
12.8 
II. I 


1-3 

0-3 
4-3 
0.4 




5 


■ i8 

19 
21 
22 

23 
24 

I 25 


3 - I-I • 7 
2 . 9-1 . 2 

3-5-1-5 
2.3-0.8 
3.8-1.4 
4. 1-2. I 
3-0-I-2 




12.6 
16.0 


2.9 
31 


15.3 
12.5 


0.0 
o-S 












Average . 




10. 

15-5 
4.0 

9-3 
6-3 
5-8 
4.6 
7.5 


13-8 

iS-4 
12.2 

13-9 

12. 1 

11. 2 
II. 
II-5 


3-5 
5-7 

3-2 

3-4 
2-4 
2.1 

2-7 

2.0 


2-4 

4-5 
0.0 

1-7 
I.I 

0-5 
1.0 
1.0 


12.0 
13-4 


I.I 
3-4 






■ 26 

27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
. 32 


2 . 9-0 . 8 
5-3-1-8 

3-7-1-3 
4. 1-2. I 
6.0-4.3 
5-6-2.5 
4.6-1.6 


6 


15-6 
9.1 

3-9 

10.3 

6.8 


1-7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.2 
1.8 


Average . 




7-5 

7.0 
10.5 
9-3 
10.7 
8.2 
8.1 
7.0 

5-0 
4-6 


12-S 


3-1 


1.4 

2.0 
2.0 
2.0 

3-2 

0.7 
2.0 
1.0 
0.0 
0-5 


9.8 


1-3 






' 33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

. 41 


4.1-2.5 
3 -4-1 -3 
3-0-1.9 
3-4-1-9 
4 . I-I . 6 
5-9-2. 
5-9-2-8 
4.6-2.4 
3-5-2-1 


7 


iS-3 
14.4 
II. 4 
13-5 
13 -I 
12.9 
14.0 
14. 1 


4-3 
4-7 
3-5 
3-4 
3-3 
3-5 
2.4 

3-1 


13-3 
17.7 
II. 

4-4 
10.4 

9-5 
0.0 

5-5 


1.2 

1-5 
2.2 
0.1 
0.6 
0.8 
0.0 
0.2 


Average . 




7-8 


13-6 


3-5 


i-S 


9.0 


0.8 













MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



93 



TABLE XXXVIII— C^foMwei 



Grade 


Subject 


Average 

No. of 

Pauses per 

Line 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 
for Length 
of Pauses 


Average 
No. of 
Regressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Variation 
for Length 
of Regres- 
sive Move- 
ments 


Silent- 
Reading 
Rate 




' 42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
50 

I 51 


6.0 

6.3 
7.0 
8.6 
4-6 
5-4 
6.2 

7-1 


12.8 
10.4 


2-5 
1.8 


0.0 
1. 1 
0.5 

2. I 
0.4 
0.6 
0.6 
I. I 


0.0 
6.0 


0.0 
0.7 


4-9-2-5 
6.5-3-S 
4.7-2.0 
3-9-2.6 
4.6-1.9 

6-5-3-3 
5. 1-2. I 
4 . 6-2 . I 


H.S 






















II. 4 
10. 1 
12.8 


2,-2, 
2.2 
2.6 


4-7 

4-9 

12.4 


0.0 

0.2 
0. 2 


Average . 




6.4 

S-i 

8.8 
5-0 
8.4 
7.6 

5-2 

6.8 
8.2 


II-5 

8.7 
II. 9 
II. 
12.3 

9-9 
12.5 
10.4 
13-8 


^.5 

3-1 
2.9 

1-4 

2.1 

2.5 
2.8 
2.2 
4.3 


0.8 

I.O 
2.0 
O.I 
1.2 

1-4 

0.7 

1.0 

I. 2 


5-6 

10.3 
10.3 
1.2 
10.6 
12.8 

5-2 

6.9 

7-7 


0.2 
0.2 

1.8 

0.0 

0.4 

0.8 

0.05 

0.1 

0-5 




C 


' 52 

53 

54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
. 59 


8.2-3.8 
8.2-3.1 

8-2-3.4 
4.1-2.4 
6.8-3.3 
10 . 0-3 . 6 
6.8-3.1 
6.0-2.8 


Average . 




6.9 


II-3 


2.6 


I.I 


8.1 


0.5 











3. Those who make the few^est pauses per line are not those w^ho 
read the most rapidly. This is shown by Table XXXVIII A. 

TABLE XXXVin A 

Relation between Reading Rate and Pauses per Line 



Grade 


No. of Pauses by 
Most Rapid Reader 


Reading Rate 


Fewest Pauses of 
Any Subject 


Reading Rate 


s 


7-1 
6.7 
7.0 
5-8 
7.0 
6.3 

5-2 


5-8-2.5 
3-I-I-7 
4 . 1-2 . I 
6.0-4.3 
5-9-2-8 

6-5-3-5 
10.0-3.6 


6.2 
5-6 
7.0 
4.0 
4-6 
4-6 
5-0 


A,T— 2 2 


4 


2 

3 

5 
3 
4 
8 


7-1.6 

5-1-5 
3-1-8 
5-2.1 
6-1.9 
2-3-4 


1; 


6 


7 


H.S 

C 







If the lengths of pauses are compared (Table XXXVIII) , it will be 
seen that in most cases those making the fewest pauses make pauses 
which are longer than are those of the subjects who make a greater 
number. This leads to the conclusion that there are two types of 
rapid readers: those for whom the number of pauses per line is 



94 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

reduced to a minimum and those for whom the length of the pause 
is reduced to a minimum. Those readers who make few pauses 
may be thought of as apprehending a larger number of words with 
each pause. We may say of them that they have a wide scope of 
attention. Those who make short pauses are evidently quicker 
in apprehending what they see, but they commonly have a narrower 
scope of attention. 

This contrast is of the highest importance. Reference to 
Table XI shows that in five out of the seven grades the most efficient 
readers are not the most rapid readers. The most efficient reading 
is done by those who make few pauses and use longer periods of 
assimilation. This means that certain individuals reduce the period 
of assimilation to such an extent that their reading ceases to be 
efficient. These facts suggest important practical principles for 
the teacher of reading. Teachers should have means at hand to 
test rapid readers as to whether or not they maintain the proper 
relation between span of attention and period of assimilation, and 
to introduce some element into training which will counteract a 
too short assimilation period. 

4. Table XXXVIII shows that in a general way there is a 
decrease in the number of pauses made in the upper grades as com- 
pared with the lower grades. 

5. If comparisons are made within the single group, it is found 
that in every grade except college the slowest reader makes pauses 
of greater length and number than the most rapid reader. That is, 
the extreme cases in each group differ both as to span of attention 
and as to rate of assimilative power. 

6. The range in the length of pauses is from 8 . 7 to 18 . 2 fiftieths 
seconds. 

7. There is only a slight decrease in the length of pauses in the 
high-school and college groups as compared with the third and 
fourth grades. This indicates that the reading of experienced 
persons improves more in the span of attention than in the rate of 
perception. A more detailed discussion of this point will be given 
in the next chapter. 

8. Those subjects making three or more regressive move- 
ments do not have a rate above 3 . 6 words per second, as shown in 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



95 



Table XXXVIII B. Evidently regressive movements are a feature 
of slow reading. 

TABLE XXXVIII B 

Relation between Reading Rate and Regressive Movements 



Subject 


Grade 


Average 

No. of 

Regressive 

Movements 


Reading Rate 


Subject 


Grade 


Average 

No. of 

Regressive 

Movements 


Reading Rate 


I 

3 

8 

9 

12 

IS 


3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 


4-1 
4.0 
30 
35 
4-5 
30 


3.6-2.1 
I . 9-0 . 8 
2.S-1.9 
3.0-1.6 
2 . 2-1 . 


19. . . 

22. . . 

25-.- 

26... 
36... 


S 
5 
5 
6 

7 


3-2 
4-3 
45 
4-5 

3-2 


2 . 9-1 . 2 
2.3-0.8 
3.0-1.2 
2 . 9-0 . 8 
3-4-I-9 



9. Table XXXVIII C, which gives the number of regressive 
movements for the most rapid readers in each grade, shows that 
in the type of reading required in these experiments regressive 
movements are largely avoided by rapid readers. 

TABLE XXXVIII C 

Relation between Reading Rate and Regressive Movements for 
Raped Readers 







Average 








Average 




Subject 


Grade 


No. of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Reading Rate 


Subject 


Grade 


No. of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Reading Rate 


4 


3 


0.3 


4.1-2. 2 


39- ■ • 


7 


I.O 


59-2. 8 


10. . . . 


4 


0.9 


3-I-I-7 


43- •• 


H.S. 


I.O 


^■S-2,S 


24 


5 


2.0 


4.1-2.1 


57- •• 


C. 


0.7 


10.0-3.6 


30 


6 


50 


6.0-4.3 











10. There is a very material decrease in the number of regressive 
movements of mature readers, as shown by a comparison of the 
upper grades with the lower grades. 

11. The range in length of the regressive movements is from 
1.2 to 19.6 fiftieths of a second. Evidently the short regressive 
movement must have a significance wholly different from that of 
the long regressive pauses. In some cases the regressive movements 
are very short and appear to be readjustments merely incidental 
to the full pause, while in other cases they are like the forward 
movements, evidently long enough to permit perception. 



96 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



Table XXXIX gives the number of pauses, length of pauses, 
etc., made by sixth-grade subjects in reading the same line. Table 
XL gives the same type of results for seventh-grade pupils. The 
point of special interest is the very large amount of variation within 
the same grade. 

TABLE XXXIX 

Data upon Eye-Movements of Sixth-Grade Subjects in Reading the Same Line 

(Selection 6, Line 4. Silent Reading) 



Subject 


No. of Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


No. of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Variation 


26 


12 

4 
10 

5 
5 
5 
5 






3 


2 
I 

2 







27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 


12.2 
IS-2 

15-8 

12.0 

8.8 

13.6 


3-2 

2.7 
2.1 

2.4 
0.9 
2.7 


0.0 
18.5 
16.0 

0.0 
10. 

0.0 


0.0 

2-5 

0.0 
0.0 

I.O 

0.0 



TABLE XL 

Data upon Eye-Movements of Seventh-Grade Subjects 

IN Reading the Same Line 

(Selection 7, Line i. Silent Reading) 



Subject 


No. of Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


No. of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 

Length of 

Regressive 

Movements 


Average 
Variation 


2>3, 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 


7 
10 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
5 
4 






2 
I 
2 
I 
I 
I 
I 








14.7 
16.6 


4.8 
6.S 


14.0 
14.0 


0.0 
1.0 


13-7 
I4-S 

14. S 

14.0 
24-5 


2.9 
4.7 
5-1 
2.4 
10. 


8.0 

16.0 

16.0 

0.0 

0.0 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 



Table XLI makes possible a comparison of the results of various 
grades for the reading of the same material. From these results 
it seems to be true that the higher grades do not make any shorter 
pauses than the lower grades. If the results of Grades 5 and 6 
on selection 6 (Part C) are compared, little difference is to be seen 
in the length of pauses, but the sixth grade makes fewer pauses than 
the fifth grade. 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



97 



TABLE XLI 

Comparison of Records for Various Grades in Reading Silently the 

Same Material 



Selection 
and Grade 



Subject 



Average No. 
of Pauses 



Average 

Length of 

Pauses 



Average 
Variation 



Average No. 
of Regressive 
•Movements 



Average 
Leiigth of 
Regressive 
Movements 



Average 
Variation 



Selection 4 
Grade 3 


{ I 


9.2 
7.2 


14.6 
19.9 


39 
4-9 


2.7 
0. 2 


16. 1 
3-7 


2.6 
0.0 


Average . . 




8.2 

6.7 

5-6 

11. 

7-4 
12.3 

"5 


17.2 

10.9 
lo-S 


4-4 

2.3 

2.7 


1-4 

0.9 
1.2 

4-5 
1.6 
30 
i-S 


9.9 

5-9 
95 


1-3 
03 

I.O 


Selection 4 


10 
II 
12 
13 
IS 
. 17 


Grade 4 












16.9 
II. 9 


3-7 
2.9 


15.2 
iSS 


2-5 

i-S 


Average . . 




9.0 


12. S 


2.9 


2.1 


"•5 


1-3 









10 
II 
12 
13 
IS 
I 17 


S-9 

5-6 

II. 6 

6.3 
II. 
12.3 


II-3 


2.5 


0.6 
1.0 

30 
I.I 

30 
30 


4.3 


o.iS 


Selection 5 










Grade 4 


12. s 
17.8 
134 


3-2 
7-3 
3S 


4-3 

14. S 

II. 8 


0.4 
6.S 
3-3 


Average . . 




8.8 

9.0 

10.7 

7.0 

130 

10.3 

7.0 

13.0 


137 

147 
II-3 
I4-S 


41 

4-3 
3-3 

4.2 


1.9 
1.0 

3-2 

1.0 

4-3 
1.0 
2.0 
4-5 


8.7 

8.6 
12.8 
II. I 


2 6 


Selection 5 
Grade s 


' 18 

19 
21 
22 
23 
24 
I 25 


0-3 
4-3 
0.4 


12.6 
16.0 


2.9 
3-1 


IS. 3 
12. s 


0.0 
o-S 












Average . . 




10. 


13-8 


3S 


2.4 


12.0 













r 18 


10. 2 


13.2 


3.S 


I.I 


8.8 


0.8 




19 


9.8 


12.6 


4.0 


1.8 


7 


9 


0.6 




21 


6.0 


14.6 


2.8 


1.0 


13 


2 


0.0 


Selection 6 


22 


9-7 


12. 1 


31 


2.7 


10 


7 


i-S 


Grade 5 


23 


7-4 


12.8 


31 


1-3 


II 


7 


0.3 




24 


9.6 


10. 1 


2.S 


1.6 


13 


I 


1.0 




I 25 


13.0 


14.4 


4.6 


3.0 


18 


I 


4-7 


Average. . . 




9-4 


12.8 


3-4 


1.8 




1-3 











98 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 
TABLE XLl— Continued 



Selection 
and Grade 


Subject 


Average No. 
of Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


Average No. 
of Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Variation 




' 26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

I 32 


IS 
4 
9 
6 

5 
4 
7 


5 


3 
3 
8 
6 

5 


15-4 

12.2 

139 
12. I 
II. 2 
II. 
II-5 


5-7 
3-2 

3-4 
2.4 
2.1 
2.7 
2.0 


4-5 
0.0 

1-7 
I.I 

0-5 

I.O 
I.O 


13 


4 


3-4 


Selection 6 
Grade 6 


IS 
9 
3 

10 
6 


6 
I 
9 
3 
8 


1-7 
O-S 
0.2 
0.2 
1.8 


Average. . . 




7. 1; 


12.5 


31 


1-4 


9.8 


1.3 








■^ 











C 26 


14.0 


14.6 


4.0 


4.C 


13.2 


2.8 




27 


8.6 


133 


3-3 


1.8 


9-7 


1.9 


Selection 7 


28 


8.6 


14.8 


S-i 


1-3 


II. I 


I.I 


Grade 6 


29 


6.6 


II. 4 


2.S 


I.I 


7.0 


0.7 




30 


6.3 


10.6 


2-3 


1-3 


7-7 


0.6 




31 


5-6 


12. 7 


2.7 


1.2 


II. 9 


0.7 




I 32 


7-3 


II. I 


2.6 


I.O 


S-S 


0.9 


Average . . 




8.1 


12.6 


3. 2 


1-7 


9-4 


1.2 




33 
34 


7.0 
lO-S 






2.0 








iS-3 


4-3 


2.0 


133 


1.2 




35 


9-3 


14.4 


4-7 


2.0 


17.7 


i-S 


Selection 7 


36 


10.7 


II. 4 


3S 


3-2 


II. 


2.2 


Grade 7 


37 


8.2 


13 S 


3-4 


0.7 


4-4 


0.1 




38 


8.1 


13 I 


3-3 


2.0 


10.4 


0.6 




39 


7.0 


12.9 


3-5 


I.O 


9S 


0.8 




40 


S-o 


14.0 


2.4 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 




I 41 


4.6 


14. 1 


3-1 


o-S 


55 


0.2 


Average . . 




7.8 


13.6 


3-5 


i-S 


9.0 


0.8 




f 42 


6.0 


12.8 


2-5 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 




43 


6.3 


10.4 


1.8 


I.I 


6.0 


0.7 




44 
45 
46 

47 


7.0 
8 6 






o-S 
2. 1 






Selection 7 
H.S. 










4-6 

S-4 






0.4 
0.6 






II. 4 


3-3 


4-7 


0.0 




50 


6.2 


10. 1 


2. 2 


0.6 


4-9 


0. 2 




I 51 


7-1 


12.8 


2.6 


I.I 


12.4 


0.2 


Average . . 




6.4 


ii-S 


2-S 


0.8 


S-6 


0.2 











f 36 


9-7 


II. 2 


2-3 


2-5 


9.1 


1.2 


Selection 8 


37 


9-3 


12.7 


30 


I.O 


8.6 


0.4 


Grade 7 


38 


10. 


12. 1 


3-6 


2.8 


14.0 


2.8 




39 


6.6 


12.0 


2.9 


0.7 


4-5 


0.4 




I 41 


5-3 


12.7 


2.8 


I.I 


10.2 


0.7 


Average . . 




8.2 


12. 1 


2.9 


1.6 


93 


I.I 









MOTOR PHASES OF READING 

TABLE XLI— Continued 



99 



Selection 
and Grade 


Subject 


Average No. 
of Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


Average No. 
of Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Variation 




43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 

. SO 


4.7 
7.0 

8.5 
4-3 
5-5 

5-2 

6.4 


II. 4 


2.3 


0.5 
I.O 
I.O 

0.0 

0.9 

0.0 

0.6 


4.0 


0-3 


Selection 8 
HS 


9.1 


2-3 


2.7 
0.0 
7.2 
0.0 
6.1 


0.2 
0.0 




"•3 

II. 2 
10.8 


2.4 
2.4 
2.8 


o.S 
0.0 
0.9 


Average . . 




5-9 

51 
8.8 
50 
8.4 
7.6 

5-2 

6.8 
8.2 


10.7 
8.7 

II. 9 
II. 
12.3 
9.9 
12.5 
10.4 
13.8 


2.4 

31 
2.9 

1-4 
2.1 

2.5 
2.8 
2. 2 
4-3 


0.6 

I.O 

2.0 
0. 1 

I. 2 

1-4 

0.7 

I.O 

I. 2 


3 3 

10.3 
10.3 

10.6 

12.8 

5-2 

6.9 

7-7 


0.3 


Selection 8 
C. 


52 
53 

54 

^i 
56 

57 

58 

I 59 


0. 2 

1.8 

0.0 

0.4 

0.8 

0.05 

0.1 

05 


Average . . 




6.9 


"•3 


2.6 


I.I 


8.1 


0.5 











f 52 


5 3 


9-4 


2.1 


0.8 


7-7 


0.1 




53 


7 


2 


12 


4 


2.4 


1.0 


II-3 


0.3 




54 


4 


5 


10 


3 


1.9 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


Selection 9 


55 


6 


8 


14 


I 


3-9 


03 


3-6 


0.0 


C. 


56 


5 


5 


10 


3 


4.8 


I.O 


3-7 


0.2 




57 


4 


3 


12 


7 


2.8 


0.7 


2.1 


0.1 




S8 


5 


4 


II 


8 


1.8 


0.4 


1-7 


0.1 




I 59 


8 


3 


13 


3 


2.6 


1.8 


13.0 


0.5 


Average . . 




50 


II. 8 


2.8 


0.7 


5-4 


0.1 

















RECORDS FOR ORAL READING 

Records were also taken for oral reading. The difficulties pro- 
duced by head-movements were much greater and more of the 
records had to be discarded than in silent reading. Those which 
were satisfactory have been studied in the same way as the silent- 
reading records. Table XLII gives results for the various grades. 
An examination of this table shows the following points: 

I. If the college or high-school groups are contrasted with the 
lower grades, it will be noted that there is a marked diflference in the 
number of pauses. 



lOO 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



2. There is also a small decrease in the length of the pauses. 

3. The total number of pauses made by the most rapid reader 



in each grade is shown in Table XLII A. 



TABLE XLII 
Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records in Oral Reading 



Selection 
and Grade 


Subject 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


Average 
No. of Re- 
gressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Length of 
Regressive 
Move- 
ments 


Average 
Variation 


Oral Rate 




10 

13 
16 

. 17 


II-3 
13.0 
130 
16.0 






0.7 
4.0 
4.0 
4.0 






3-8-1.2 
2.S-O.6 
3.2-1.0 
2.7-0.8 


Selection4 
Grade 4 


IS. 6 
16.3 
II-3 


2.9 
5-3 

2-5 


16.7 
II-3 
II-3 


3-2 

3-1 
2.9 


Average. . 




133 

9.0 

9-7 

10. 

8.6 


14.4 
12. 1 


3-5 
1.6 


3-2 

30 
1-7 
2.0 
X.6 


13 -I 
13-3 


3-1 
I.I 




Selections 
Grade 5 


21 
22 

23 
I 24 


4.8-1.0 
3-5-1-2 
4.3-1.0 
3-8-0.9 










15-4 


6-3 


13-8 


2.8 


Average. . 




9-3 

9.0 
9.0 


13-7 

13s 
12. 5 


3-9 

5-2 

5-6 


2.1 

3-0 
3-0 


13-5 

10. 
I5-0 


1.9 

0.0 

8.0 




Selection 6 
Grade 6 


/30 
1 31 


3-7-1-7 
4.6-1.6 


Average. . 




9.0 

"S 

II-3 

10. 

14.0 

9.8 

8.2 

9-5 


130 

15-2 

II. 2 

135 
12.3 
12. 2 
12.4 
15-3 


5-4 

6.4 
2.8 
3.8 
4-3 
2.8 

3-7 
S-9 


3-0 

3-0 
4.6 

I.O 

5-0 
2. 2 
1.0 

2-5 


12. 5 

12.5 
12.8 
5-0 
12. 1 
12.0 

95 
18. 1 


4.0 

0.0 

3-4 
0.0 
3-0 
1.6 
0.2 
2.1 




Selection 7 
Grade 7 


■ 34 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

. 41 


3-5-1-0 

3-7-0.9 
4 . 6-1 . 
3-6-0.9 

4-3-1-3 
4.1-1.7 
4.1-1.6 


Average. . 




10.6 

10.2 
7.8 
7.0 
6.7 
7-5 


131 
II. 


4.2 

2-7 


2.7 

2.6 

2.0 

0.8 

0.0 
0.0 


II. 7 

7-4 


1-5 
I. 2 






' 43 
45 
47 
48 

I 50 


4. 1-2.2 
4. 8-1. 8 


Selections 
H.S. 


136 

17.6 

9.0 


3-6 
5-4 
3-0 


8.1 
0.0 
0.0 


0. 1 
0.0 
0.0 


4-3-1-9 
4-6-1.7 
S-3-2-I 


Average . . 




7-8 

9-7 
8.8 

7-7 
9.6 
8.7 
8.2 


12.8 

12.4 
12.0 

159 
II. 4 
12.7 
133 


3-7 

3-6 
2.9 
4.2 
2.8 
3-5 
3-4 


I.I 

2. I 

o.S 

0.8 
2.4 

2.1 

1-4 


3-9 

12.3 
3-4 
S-i 

10.9 
9.9 
5-3 


0.3 

3-3 
0.7 
0.9 
2. 2 
1.6 
0.7 




Selections 
C. 


■ 53 

54 

< 55 

56 

57 

I 59 


4.8-2.2 
4.5-1-8 
4.0-2.1 
4.8-1.7 
4.9-2.1 
S-0-1.3 


Average . . 




8.8 


12.9 


3-4 


1.6 


7-8 


1.6 











MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



lOI 



A further examination of Table XLII shows that in every grade 
except the fourth other individuals either make as few pauses as, or 
fewer than, the subjects referred to in Table XLII A. In other 
words, the smallest number of pauses does not accompany the most 
rapid reading. 

TABLE XLII A 

Relation between Number of Pauses and Reading Rate 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of Pauses 


Reading Rate 


Grade 


Subject 


No. of Pauses 


Reading Rate 


4 

s 

6 


lO 
21 

31 


II-3 
9.0 
9.0 


3-8-1.2 
4 . 8-1 . 
4 . 6-1 . 6 


7 

H.S.. 
C... 


37 
SO 
59 


10. 

7-S 
8.2 


4.6-1.0 
5-3-2.1 
5-0-1.3 



4. The range in length of pauses is from 9.0 to 17.6 fiftieths 
seconds. 

5. If the relation between the length and number of pauses is 
studied, it will be seen that the longest pauses (17.6) are made by 
the subject (No. 48) who makes the least number of pauses (6.7). 
The shortest pauses (9.0) are made by an individual (No. 50) who 
makes only 7 . 5 pauses per line. Further, it may be noted that the 
subject (No. 17) who makes the largest number of pauses (16.0) 
has an average of 11. 3 fiftieths seconds for each of them. This 
study of t3rpical cases is enough to show that there is no close rela- 
tion between the length of pauses and the number of pauses. 

Table XLIII compares the results for oral and silent reading. 
Twenty-one out of the twenty-six subjects make fewer pauses per 
line in silent than in oral reading. A comparison of the average 
number of pauses made by the various grades shows that all grades, 
including the high-school and college groups, make fewer pauses 
in silent than in oral reading, with the single exception of the fifth 
grade, where there is no difference. If the length of pauses for the 
two types of reading is compared, it is found that eleven of the 
twenty-six subjects have slightly shorter pauses in silent than in 
oral reading. 

If the average lengths of the pauses for the various grades for 
the two tj^es of reading are compared, it is seen that in the fourth 
and sixth grades and in the high-school and college groups the 
average for silent reading is shorter than for oral reading. 



102 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



Table XLIV shows the individual variations made in number of 
pauses, length of pauses, etc., by members of the seventh grade 

TABLE XLIII 

Comparison of Oral- and Silent-Reading Results 



Grade 


Subject 


Average No. of 

Pauses Oral 

Reading 


Average No. of 

Pauses Silent 

Reading 


Average 

Length of Pauses 

Oral Reading 


Average 

Length of Pauses 

Silent Reading 




1 ^^ 

I 17 


"■3 
130 
16.0 


6.7 

7-4 

"•5 




10.9 


A. 


15-6 
"•3 




II. 9 


Average 




134 

9.0 

9-7 

10. 

8.6 


8.5 

7.0 
130 
10.3 

7.0 


13-4 
12. 1 


II. 4 


21 

22 

23 
24 


145 






12.6 




15-4 


16.0 


Average . 




9-3 

9.0 
9.0 


9-3 

5-8 
4.6 


13-7 

13-5 
12.5 


14.3 
II. 2 


6 


\ 31 




II. 


Average . 




9.0 

ii-S 

II-3 

10. 

14.0 

9.8 

8.2 

9-5 


5-2 

IO-5 
10.7 
8.2 
8.1 
7.0 
S-o 
4.6 


13.0 

152 
II. 2 
13.5 
12.3 
12.2 
12.4 
15-3 


II. I 


7 


34 
36 
37 
38 

39 
40 

41 


15-3 
II. 4 

13.5 
13 I 




12.9 
14.0 
14. 1 


Average . 




10.6 

10.2 
7-8 
7.0 
7-5 


7-7 

4-7 
8.5 
55 
6.4 


I3-I 
II. 


13-4 

II. 4 
9.1 

"3 
10.8 


H.S 


43 

45 

47 

I 50 




13-6 
9.0 


Average . 




8.1 

9-7 
8.8 

7-7 
9.6 

8.7 
8.2 


6.3 

8.8 
5.0 
8.4 
7.6 

5-2 

8.2 


II. 2 

12.4 
12.0 

15.9 
II. 4 
12.7 
13-3 


10. 


C 


53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
I 59 


II. 9 
II. 
12.3 




9.9 

12. 5 
13-8 


Average . 




8.8 


7.2 


12.9 


II. 9 









while reading the same line of material orally. Here greater varia- 
tion is found in the number of pauses than in the length of pauses. 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



103 



EYE-MOVEMENTS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF READING 

In the tests for oral and silent reading evidence was reported 
showing that there are different types of reading, according as the 
reader prepares to answer questions or prepares to make an outline 

TABLE XLIV 

Individual Variations in Reading Orally the Same Line 
(Selection 7, Line 2. Seventh Grade) 



Subject 


No. of Pauses 


Length of 
Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


No. of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Length of 
Regressive 
Movements 


Average 
Variation 


34 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 


10 

14 
10 

9 

7 
7 
7 


13 

12 
14 
14 
12 
10 
13 


S 


3 

2 

5 
4 
6 


5 

2 

3 
7 
3 

I 

S 


6 
3 

7 
8 
2 
8 



2 

4 


I 
I 


I 


II. 

13-5 
0.0 


0.0 
3-2 
0.0 
0.0 


130 
0.0 


0.0 
0.0 












or a full reproduction. This suggested that photographs be taken 
to see if any differences appeared in the eye-movements during 
these different kinds of reading. The records which have been 
taken and discussed previously may be thought of as due to one 
type of reading. In such reading the subject was expected to read 
for an intelligent understanding of the material. Three other types 
of records were taken. One of these was of reading, which was 
followed by the answering of questions on prose; another was a 
passage of poetry, with the answering of questions; and a third 
was the reading of prose for reproduction. The material for the 
prose tests was selected from the book from which material was 
taken for the test described above. All the prose selections may be 
thought of as being about equal in difl&culty, but the poetry was 
easier, as indicated by the fact that each of the subjects remarked 
after the tests that the poetry was easy. 

In taking the record the subjects were told that the material 
was to be read, in the one case, with the purpose of answering ques- 
tions, in the other, with the idea of reproducing it. As soon as one 
selection was read, the subject was released from the headrest and 
was given the task agreed on. He was given either a sheet of 



I04 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



paper upon which the questions were written or a blank sheet for 

the reproduction. As soon as the writing was done, the subject was 

again seated at the apparatus, a second selection was read, and so 

on until the three types of reading had been recorded. Three 

adult subjects were used in this part of the experiment. 

Table XLV gives the number and length of the pauses for the 

various types of reading for one subject. These results indicate 

clearly that the reader does differentiate between different tj^pes of 

reading and evidently approaches different reading problems with 

a different mental "set." The results here reported are typical of 

all the subjects. It is also interesting to note that the length of the 

pauses does not vary in any large degree, while the number of 

pauses varies greatly. 

TABLE XLV 

Eye-Movement Record of One Subject in Various 
Types of Silent Reading 





No. OP Pauses 


Average Length of Pauses 


Line 


Prose 


Prose 
(Answering 
Questions) 


Poetry 
(Answering 
Questions) 


Reproduc- 
tion 


Prose 


Prose 
(Answering 
Questions) 


Poetry 
(Answering 
Questions) 


Reproduc- 
tion 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

lO 


9 

12 

9 

7 
7 
8 

7 
7 
7 


10 
6 
8 

12 
9 

13 

10 

9 
10 
10 

8 

9 
II 


14 
10 
12 

15 
II 

8 
10 

8 

7 
10 

IS 

12 


9 

7 
10 

8 • 
8 

7 
II 
10 

7 
10 


I3-I 
113 

12.7 
15-3 

"ii.'s" 

iS-8 


14.8 
17.6 
16. 1 
12.5 
131 
14.8 

13-7 
139 
12.4 
12.3 
12.7 
12.0 
143 


15-7 
ir-S 
iS-7 
14.2 
14.6 
12.8 

11. 

iS-3 

16. 1 

137 
14. 1 
13-8 


iS-5 
14.2 

15-5 
17.0 
12.2 
14s 

12-5 

12.7 
14.2 
17-5 


II 




12 










13 
























Average 


8.1 


9.6 


II. 


8.7 


133 


13-9 


14.0 


14.6 



Table XL VI shows the number of regressive movements. Here, 
again, the variation from one type of reading to another is striking. 
Such results indicate a method of reading. In Plate VIII, E shows 
the eye-movements of one of these subjects while he is reading 
poetry. It is evidently true that this subject has deliberately 
moved his eye back and forth in each line as a method of compre- 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



105 



hension. This doubtless means that the regressive movement 
plays a large part in careful and detailed reading. In other words, 
regressive movements may in this case be thought of as related to 
the mental processes of comprehension. It is clear, in the record 
shown in Plate VIII, that this reader has made long strides forward 
and has then gone backward. It is as though the forward move- 

TABLE XLVI 

Number of Regressive Movements in Various Types of Silent Reading 

FOR One Subject 











B 










a 


Line 



a 


■§§ 




i 


Line 


o> 




•gs 





"1 




in 


ill 


o<6 


1 




•2« 

Is 




1^^ 


1 


I 


I 


3 


5 


3 


9.... 


I 


3 





I 


2. ... 


4 

3 

I 





4 
4 
5 
3 





10 




3 
2 


2 


2 


3 

4 

5 


2 


3 

I 


II. . . . 




4 
4 




3 
3 


12. . . . 




2 




I 


2 


I3--- 




2 




6 


2 


4 


3 


I 












7 


I 


2 


5 


3 


Av. 


1.8 


2.4 


3-3 


1.8 


8 


2 


2 


I 


2 













ment were made for the purpose of getting a general idea of the 
situation and then the attention shifted backward in order that the 
meaning might be finally comprehended. This matter should be 
studied further, in order to determine whether the poor reader 
shows characteristically movements of the regressive type. It 
would be of interest also to study in detail the development of 
such methods of reading through the several school grades. 



THE LOCATION OF POINTS OF FIXATION 

The location of the points of fixation on the lines read was 
accomplished by placing the film showing the fixation points in 
one projecting lantern and the selection in a second lantern above 
it so that both records, one superimposed on the other, could be 
thrown on a screen. The eye began by fixating a point which was 
put just outside the reading matter (Plate VIII, record D). The 
fixation point at which the eye began being thus determined, the 



io6 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

further fixations were determined by the amount of horizontal 
movement away from this first point. Plates X-XV give details 
from records of both good and poor readers. The vertical lines 
indicate the points of fixation, and the digits above indicate the 
order of fixations in the series. The last line shown for No. i is 
very interesting. The word "sparkles" has been spelled out. 

No. 4 is in the same grade with No. i, and no comment is neces- 
sary to bring out the contrast. The same type of contrast as that 
between No. i and No. 4 can be drawn between the records of 
W. E. and B. R. (Plates XIII and XIV). After B. R. had had prac- 
tice in rapid reading, his record shows a very striking decrease in 
the number of pauses. 

As do many other subjects, No. 3 (Plate X) requires more fixa- 
tions for the first line of a selection than any thereafter. This is 
probably due to the fact that it takes a certain length of time for 
the child to get into the swing of the selection. The regressive 
movement that often occurs near the beginning of the first line of 
a selection, according to Dearborn, is due to the fact that the motor 
habit of the eye for the selection is not yet established. 

FIXATIONS IN ORAL READING 

As has been stated, records for oral reading were taken with the 
camera and an Edison dictaphone. A photographic shutter, which 
had been reversed so that it closed for a fraction of a second, was 
placed in the path of the light entering the eye. The shutter was 
closed with each rotation of the phonograph cylinder by means of a 
solenoid controlled by a cam on the shaft of the dictaphone. This 
shutter made a small gap in the eye-movement record, as shown in 
D of Plate IX. The cam also operated a second solenoid, which 
sounded a bell that was inclosed in a box. The sound of the bell 
was recorded on the wax cylinder at the same time as the record 
of the shutter upon the film, so that it was possible to synchronize 
voice with the eye-movement records. 

Plates XVI-XXII show the records of different individuals. 
The vertical lines indicate again the fixation points. The crosses 
above certain vertical lines indicate the gaps made by the closing 
of the shutter referred to in the foregoing paragraph. In some 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 
PLATE X 



No4,ljit^ 



/ 4 9 

ibi 



/o U 13 IZ /¥ 

11 turns roond, a little, aiKl/ 



107 



2/JV f ^ 7 f /O 



littla mo 



e. What 



Is it thlt cir 



mes ouQof tde 



Z 43 

dark ind g\ 



/ S 

H 7 t 



ind glffiOB in 



IZ 



thie light of t 



/J 
// /o /¥ 

ud? I; 



3 ^ 

Z\ / S (, 9 8 



stretilid 



widi as uheicead, ind iparklles too 



*3 

II 



fo tz 



^¥- 



in some places, smooth as a pond ; in others, 



rolling as ocean waves. But it is not water 



V i 



thtt spolrKiea Bo It 



// tS l(> f9 2Ll^ 



10 



IZ 



'¥ 



zi 



dr}! sinri kni idck ke 



ZZ 23 



Location of eye-movement fixations 
Subject No. I Silent reading 



io8 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

PLATE XI 

2, 9 to /s- ft /f 

^^ 7 I if it s (» in. t*f ta /7 y6 za 



'*}4v«i a4 thf ball |t|irn4r44nd, a|l|ttU, ai^d 



little 



13 5- 4 7 f f 

t i| if that coqies ^ut of tpe| 



« / V 



dark 



anjd gleam! 



S 4 Z 

in the liglht of the{sun i 



. 



Z / 3 S 



stretchles 



4, 7 ^ 



wide as |tbf 4>cean, and sgarkle 



J too J 



3 Z / ¥ 



S 6 



in som4 placejs, smloQth as a p(pi|td ] in others. 






Location of eye-movement fixations 
Subject No. 3 . Silent reading 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



PLATE XII 
/ ^ 3 ^ ¥ ^ If 

lko>J,as thfe ball turds rourid, a little.land d 



109 



/ Z 3 *f i 6 



little Jaore, kbal is it 



that domes 



outof th<: 



/ Z 3 f "f ^ 

dark and gleims in the light 



itlofthesui? Itl 



7t I 3 ¥ S ^ 7 



Btnetcheslwi 



ideaslthe ocean 



anfl sparkles too; 



/ Z 3 4 5 (> 



sl>ine placJs^ 



in s6ine places, smooth 



as a pond; im others, 



rolling 



/ ^ 3 f S i7 

Bs ocean waves. But it is nottwakeq 



Location of eye-movement fixations 
Subject No. 4 Silent reading 



no 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



PLATE Xin 



Z / 3 



k portion 



portion of the Grecian host br<)ke up camp bnd 



etsailasiftl 



ey were homeward bound; but,bnce 



[ 

; but,bn 



Z / 



but 



^ S 



t\a their ships qehind i 



of sight, they ancho 



Location of eye-movement fixations 
Subject W. E. Silent reading 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



III 



PLATE XIV 



/ ^ 3\¥ 4 f 7/a 

'set skil alpflthiy ^erh hbiieward bou] 



/6 /r 



vert hoineward bound ;|but, p|ic< 



Z 3 







ht| tbej Uch<lre<| theiij 



ff (sightl tbej tnch 



ships bqhi 



da 



Location of eye-movement fixations 
Subject B. R. Silent reading 



PLATE XV 
3 ^ 



I Z 3 ^ S 

(AiportioD of tpe Grecian host pi 



e Grecian host proke up camp and 



setsai 



! ,s if they were horoewi 



( f 1 

ird bound; bft,once 



Location of fixation pauses in silent reading for 
B. R. after twenty days practice in rapid reading. 



112 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



PLATE XVI 
X 



t 



Itlwas impossib! 

a' 



} any longer to Keep OQilfooting 



X 
J5 / 



on the 



3 Y 

liie mad and 



7 t 9 



artd 
1-he. 
tAe^b; 



/' 



6^X 
5^7 



f & f f 

Ibave swept oa into the ocoan if wd bad not clung to 



eakers wiuld 



X 



9 11^ 

lone anolh4r With the 



// 



f9 



e another \tnth the deiperation of drowning men 



/Z /3 



« 4> 



y 



12 



JTakii 



'aking ad vantage olF a momentary loll, W( 



r 

tc If 

ll 

sibiwled 



Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. 43(A). 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



"3 



PLATE XVII 



k>oi 



not micundefstaadl me her< 



a, 

11 i 

r4. Tie Americ4ns. 
I 

a.' 



sinci that blending 



& 3 

of Experience ^ 



* *' 



which maae (heid 



7x.g- 



f 



lone people, hwe 



^ 3 ^ 



C 



6 7 






ane people, hwe never telt that the English language 

X X 

/ 2 ? f ^ f ^ 

Vraa mange or f mreign to Ihein. iThey #id not adipt 



Location of eye-movement fixations and 
eye-voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No 43(B). 



114 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



PLATE XVIII 



3x« 



S\^ 4 



7 f f 



X 



first sallied frotn the door, theotheJ 



\Mhan B had first sallied from the ) 

of 



mutineieis had Ulready been swarining up 



Li 



/5- 



c 

6 71 ^ /o 



>ade to make tts end of us. (Dne 



I, ID a red 



Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. 39. 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



"5 



PLATE XIX 



: was impossible 






oh the 



f 

beach, lit 



11 i 

Ibe wind anfl the Ibreakera would 



r 



3 ¥ S- ^ 7 S^ 9 

lave swept us into toe ocein if we hid not clunj^ to 



I 



d 



one another with tihe desperation of drowning men. 



Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. 54. 



PLATE XX 



X 
3 



f 



It was impossible! any longerlto keep our footing 



4* 
Z I 3 



f f ^ z ^ 



on 



tie oeach. {The wind and ithe bdeakers wvuld 



r 



C 
X 

^ S 47 



have Bwept as imo the ocian if welhad ndt clungj 



d 

X 



one another with the desperation of drowning men . 
X 



itis 



Taking advantage of a momentary lull, we crawl 

if' 



J 



up the sands on our hands and knees, and, pausing 
,/ 



/' 



X 



in the lee of the granite ledge to ^in breath, re- 



turned to dbe camp. 



where we found that the gale 
I. 



Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. S5- 



PLATE XXI 



/ 5 Z 



6 7 ^ 



It wis impossible any longer to keep lar foot! 



0/ 



Iff 
X A> 



;e/3 ¥ 4, s ^ 7 s\ 

on tie beacb. The|wina and the breakers would 
I C 

f X 

/ Z 3 f S 4, 7 g 

L ii J 

I if ke hadbotlclungtto 



haves^ 



ptu! 



intp the ociao 

d 

X 



one another with the d4speratioo of drowning men 



d/ 



r 



L 



XpJongadvBotage of a momentary lull, we era 



/' 



X X 



t^ the sands on our bands and kneee, and, pausing 



X 



i- 



in the Ue of 



the granite ledge to gain breath, re- 
I 






tnnii 



/ I 

to the campf 



where we found that the gale 



bad snapped all the &stenings of the tentibut one. 

A' 

Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. 53. 



ii8 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

PLATE XXII 
It was impossible any longer to keep our footing 



X 



5 (> 7 



OD tne beach. The (wind and tbe breakers yt suld 



6 



Z / 3 ¥ 

bale swe >t us m 



f 7 



o the odean if we bad ndt.clung tq 



z I 3 f- S 7 (> 9 

4J II II 

onleanvtberwito thebesperai onoLf dnowningmien 



4> 3 



Z t 



rTaklng advantage of i momentary 



t. 

X 

7 



lulljWecrAwled 



up the sands on our hands and knees, and, pausing 

Location of eye-movement fixations and eye- 
voice span in oral reading. 
Subject No. 45. 



MOTOR PHASES OP READING 1 19 

cases the shutter cut off a part of two movements. These cases are 
indicated by two crosses, one following immediately after the 
other. Furthermore, each cross is accompanied by a letter, and 
below the line are letters to show where the voice was when the 
eye was fixating at the point indicated by the cross. Thus, when 
the eye in each record is at o, the voice is at a'; when the eye is at 
b the voice is at b'; etc. 

So far as the location of fixations is concerned, no new points 
seem to be brought out for oral reading. There are more pauses 
and more regressive movements. A number of the small words 
receive a fixation and a number of the larger words have two 
fixations. 

There are two distinct types of eye-voice separation. One type 
is represented by subject No. 53 (Plate XXI), who keeps a distance 
of three or four words between eye and voice; the other type by 
No. 54 (Plate XIX) , who keeps eye and voice very close together. 
By referring to Table VIII, on page 34, it will be seen that No. 53 
is one of the best oral readers in the entire group of subjects, while 
the record of No. 54 does not have such a high rank. A long span 
between eye and voice probably gives the subject an opportunity 
to anticipate what is coming and to carry out the interpretation 
more successfully. 

An examination of the first record for No. 43A (Plate XVI) shows 
a very close relation between fixation and articulation, while the 
second record (Plate XVII) shows that this relation may change in 
a very marked way within the same selection. The separation is 
greater in all cases in the second record than in the first. Such 
variations are probably due to fluctuations in attention as well as 
to changes in subject-matter. 

Certain general comments may be made regarding the eye- 
movements involved in the reading process. 

1 . Fixations which are made in a forward direction divide them- 
selves into three classes: those which are determined by the length of 
the span of attention, those which fall within or near short words, and 
those which are used in making a detailed analysis of single words. 

2. Regressive movements divide themselves into four classes: 
first, those which accompany the slow and tedious reading caused 



I20 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

by lack of familiarity with language form and failure to get mean- 
ing; second, those which accompany very rapid reading, where it 
becomes necessary for the reader to go back and connect up the 
different fields of vision; third, those which indicate a phase 
of technique used in careful and detailed reading; fourth, as has 
been emphasized by Dearborn, such movements as occur near the 
beginning of a passage before the motor habit of the eye becomes 
estabhshed. 

3. The number of pauses decreases as progress is made through 
the various school grades. 

4. A large number of fixations results in slow reading, while a 
small number of fixations facilitates rapid reading. However; the 
most rapid readers do not always have the smallest number of 
fixations. 

5. Very little change is made in the length of pauses as we pass 
from grade to grade or from slow to rapid reading, which emphasizes 
the fact that span of attention changes more than does the rate at 
which assimilation takes place. 

6. The separation between eye and voice in oral reading varies 

from individual to individual or from point to point within the same 

selection. 

oculists' tests 

It seemed wise in connection with this work on visual fixations 
to make sure that optical defects in the various subjects studied 
did not vitiate the results. A series of tests were therefore per- 
formed with a number of subjects. For this purpose some good 
readers were selected and some poor. The experiment was not 
carried far enough to correct any of the defects by means of glasses. 
In a few cases it would have been interesting to determine the effect 
of glasses, but it was not thought practicable, since it takes a con- 
siderable period of time for a subject to become accustomed to them. 
Moreover, the particular persons found in need of glasses were good 
readers, and the results of treatment, while interesting in them- 
selves, would not have explained the poor reading of the normal 
persons tested. 

All the apparatus used was standard material sold by F. A. 
Hardy & Company, Chicago. Myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, 



MOTOR PHASES OF READING 



121 



and accommodation were tested by means of the punctometer. 
In this instrument the lens scale and charts used are so constructed 
as to give all the results in dioptres. 

Visual acuity and binocular vision were tested by the Hardy 
diaphragm test. Fig. 7 gives the essential points of this instrument. 
The test card is placed at T and is seen through the opening in D. 
The right and left wings of the test card are seen by the left and 
right eyes, respectively, and a narrow median band of the card is 




Fig. 7. — Hardy diaphragm test 

T— Test card 
D — Diaphragm 
Left eye 

seen by both eyes. To determine the quality of visual acuity, 
rather large letters or figures are used, and if there is no difference 
in the clearness of the letters or figures the eyes have equal vision. 
To determine the presence, the absence, or a defect in binocular 
vision, cards with printed matter or with small letters or figures are 
used. 

The muscular co-ordinations of the eyes were tested by means of 
De Zeng's phorometer No. 537. This includes a double rotary and 
mobile prism unit on each side, a red and a white Maddox multiple 
rod, and a Stevens phorometer. The experimenter is able to locate 
any imbalance of the muscles and to make a duction test of each 



122 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

muscle of each eye separately, in order to determine which muscle 
or muscles of either or both eyes, as the case may be, are at fault. 

The results from these tests showed clearly that eye defects 
have nothing to do with reading ability. In fact, if there is any 
difference, the good readers have more defects than the poor 
readers. The worst case of astigmatism was found in a fourth- 
grade boy who was the best reader in the group. 

In addition to the eye tests which have just been reported, an 
examination was made of the peripheral vision of a number of sub- 
jects by means of a perimeter. The instrument used had a small 
light for a fixation point, and a second white light moved either in 
or out on the scale. A headrest was provided, and the work was 
done in a semi-darkened room. The experimenter sat where the 
eyes of the subject were under observation, and continual caution- 
ing was necessary in order to keep the children from turning their 
eyes toward the light on the margin rather than fixating the light 
straight ahead. Records were made by moving the light on the 
scale both in and out, the different meridians used being o, 15, 30, 
45, 60, and so on, for the entire 360 degrees. 

This work may be summarized briefly by saying that no differ- 
ence could be found in the peripheral vision of poor and good 
readers. 



CHAPTER IV 



PERCEPTION TESTS 

In the last chapter certain motor processes were studied in their 
relation to rate, comprehension, and other phases of oral and silent 
reading. In this chapter it is proposed to present the results of 
experiments on visual perception. Short-exposure tests were the 
first to be tried. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 6. By means of 
a lantern (A) fitted with a high-grade photographic lens and 
shutter (B) seventeen easy sentences ranging from two to seven 
words in length were projected on a mirror (C) and from this to a 
plaster-of-Paris surface (D), allowing eleven-fiftieths seconds for 
each exposure. Different speeds of the shutter were tried, and 
eleven-fiftieths was decided on as a rate at which every grade of 
reader could get something from the exposures. The speed of the 
shutter was determined by placing both it and a fifty-vibration 
tuning fork in the path of a beam of light and photographing the 
beam during the opening of the shutter on the moving film used in 
photographing eye fixations. 

In using this apparatus it is necessary to guard against after- 
images, and great care must be exercised in making the photographic 
slides, in order that the same degree of illumination be maintained 
throughout the entire group. 

TABLE XLVII 
Records for B. R. and W. E. in First Perception Test 



No. of Words 
Exposed 


Average No. of 

Words Correct — 

W.E. 


Average No. of 

Words Correct — 

B.R. 


2 

? 


2.0 

3-6 
4.0 
5-3 


1.6 
1 


4. 


1-3 
1-3 . 
1.6 


5 

6 



Table XLVII gives the perception records for two selected 
subjects — W. E. and B. R., who have been contrasted in most of 

123 



124 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



B 2 



e. 



Q 
O 

o 

H 



Pi 
3 2 

.go 









^1 



Mo 



bp3 
2^ 



5po 



g>o 



NcOWJtOWNCowN 



«W««M|-(I-1« 



IN«IMNK«W3« 



PO lO H 


M 


lo oi «r>oo o< 


r^vo NO 


f0»0 o 


Oi « 


t^ IN O 


lOOO Tf H 


M 


M M O 


(N 


IH M C«l O tH 


M H H 


M H H 


n 


H H H 


W H M 

1 r 1 1 


M 
i 


H invo 


M 


O^ «500 On lO 


ILh 


44i. 


M Ol W 



CO'<l-tO'*H WJIOH PI 



rOMfOO<POP)<NW cOMcOcOP»PO'*fO 



r^oo o> >o r» N vo »o c<5 



t^ CO H CO coo too 

«COCOC^WPI<MM 



NOOvO H Onm 0>h 

IHP1P)C<1HC0<MC» 



OioiotoOO«Mi^ 
Op«comcowmp«m 



vr> O 

<N M 



>ooO >0 vO O O tn CO PO 

OC<COC<C<COCOMM 



c^ O co^O vO CO CO c^ 
rO'*POcOC^ COC^ M 



M NOO co»ON<OvO 
M 'i-P) Pi cococOPl 



VS iO\0 CO O OO O NO 

OCOPtCOMPlPiMH 



O O O >-i NO t^OO PI PI 
OcOcOP»i-iPiP>Hi-i 



CO O NO CO PI O CO »ONO 

tHCOP«P>WP»PlOO 



nOOOOpicOOOnO 
wpipic^wmpipim 



cOOnO O coOnO »0 
PI "4-cOPi PI COCOH 



PINO O COIOIOPINO 
COCO'^PIPIPIPIM 



NO O^OPI coiOioO 

PtCOPIPIPIPIPlM 



0000»00000co 

MMPIHPII-IPIH 



cOiococoOnO PINO 

HCOPICSPl'4-COPI 



OnO pi OOO COPIOO 

MMPIPlOCOCOH 



coo V) CO VIVO NO NO 
OPIPIPIWPIPIM 



piOOnOOOOOOO 
hpipihhpic^h 



H PI CO •'t »ONO t>.00 On O hi pi CO •<1- »OnO t^ 



PERCEPTION TESTS . 



125 



Mt<i«fOinfO<N cO<N«NC»M««5t»5fO CO't«<>0«^WMPOf'5 ^^'^■tOTt'l-'i-Wi 



00 00 PO w r<> vovo 


to fO C^^O 00 ■* W 


v> 10 \0 0» POOO Tt H M 


00 H »i- ^ POO w 00 


M HI M •<i- M W 

0> fO t^ M *o vO 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

0^ >0 t-<. 0>0 to M H H -O 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

<N<NCSM0OOO0O 


« to PO ■«*'>o >o •^ 


Tt-co<r)r0'l-»0i0^e*5 


Tj-vO rf to Tl-vO -"t c*5 >0 ^ 


00 00 00 ■^o VO 



PO 'ii-vO lOWOPO >Ot>-'<-'^PO'*- POO 00 ■Ttt^OOOOO'OPO'tw'O OOO'l-^POiOOvi-i 
MMMW«PO<N C«MMH«MP0P>ltO POPOP^MPOP^POMPOCO PltOPOCtcOfOPOPO 



O 0«'5>00>0>r50>'> 
C<C«wi-iP0P<P<POPO 



10 ir> 

P« ■<*■ 



O O »o 

CO PO P< 



O lOVOVOO fOlOO 
MC^MHrtPOPOPO 



vO VO O « 00 tOOO 



vr>«o0O0000t0P0V0O0000«00P00000 OOOOOvOOOP^ 
POW POM w ct \r> trtyri ^vo toe<''i"Miot-t«0^ popO'I'PIpO «/^vO '4- 



PO>oOP«OOP< 0000 vooo 00 O PO O O POO PO O 10 lO ««00 w OMOPtPOOOO 
»HMPOP<P«''l-P< p^<NP<hm«t1-po>0 iO'^mpovo'I-tJ-mcO'^ PO'l-TfPO'i-ioiO'i- 



pOPOMoooooio ooo»OPOP<0>o POO « 10 vn p» o « tno poo OOOOOMOOOO 

MMP<<<MCOI-t C>IMe«M«POPOC<PO COPOmpO'*c««OpO'* PO'^'^P^POPO'^P^ 



000 VOO 00 OOOPOiOOOOO 00000 »00 P«NO OOOOOPOOO 

WHP^C^CIPOPO C>)IHP^HP<P»P<C<tO P1POP<POCOP<P<I-IOCO PJP<PO<N01P»COPO 



0000 O O O o 

w M IH ft O) W W 



o o o PO >oo 000 ooooooooe^ooo 00000000 

P^MPtMHIIHPJClM MP4P4MC^C4C^MMH C<MP1P«C»P<f)P< 



126 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



the tests and experiments discussed in the two preceding chapters. 
The figures in the first column indicate the number of words 
exposed. In each case there were three exposures. Thus there 
were three exposures with two words each, three with three words 
each, etc. It is very apparent that W. E. is much superior to 
B. R. in this test. 

Table XL VIII gives the results in this test for all subjects. A 
number of subjects were not tested on the seven-word sentences, as 
indicated by the blanks in the table. The vertical column next 
to the last shows for purposes of comparison the silent-reading rate 
when questions are to be answered on prose passages (chapter ii, 
Table XI). 



Span of attention 



\aj-ia 



ti-z.o\Ai-3.Ai.i-f.o\ 



\a/-/.a U/-s.o\s.t-3.a\3./-« 



Vi-'-io \i-/-eeU-l-3.<^iJ-Vo\ \e./-/.a\i/-e-o\z/-3M3./-t!o 



Group I (o . i-i . o) Group II (i . 1-2 . o) Group III (2 . 1-3 . o) Group IV (3 . 1-4 . o) 
Diagram 6. — Relation between span of attention and rate of reading 

In order to show the relation which exists between span of 
attention and rate of reading, the results for Table XLVIII have 
been brought together in Diagram 6 in the form of distribution 
curves. The subjects were divided into four minimum-rate groups, 
and the individuals in each group were distributed in accordance 
with their average span of attention. A study of the diagram shows 
clearly that, as the rate of reading increases, the span of attention 
increases. In this connection note that in Group I a span of atten- 
tion not greater than 2 predominates, that in Group II a span which 
ranges from 2.1 to 3 predominates, and that the same type of 
increase in the length of the span holds for Groups III and IV. 

The relation which exists between span of attention and number 
of pauses per line is of interest at this point. This relation is shown 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



127 



in Table XLIX. The numbers of pauses are taken from Table 
XXXVIII in the preceding chapter, while the average span of 
attention given is taken from Table L. Only the third grade and 

TABLE XLIX 
Relation between Span of Attention and Number of Pauses per Line 



Grade 


Subject 


No. of Pauses 
per Line 


Average Span 


Grade 


Subject 


No. of Pauses 
per Line 


Average Span 




I 


138 


0.7 




f 52 


S-I 


2.8 




2 


7-9 


2.8 




53 


8.8 


3 







3 


9.2 


2.9 




54 


50 


3 


4 


3 


4 


6.2 


2-5 


C 


55 


8.4 


2 


4 


6 


7-3 


2.2 


56 


7-6 


3 


3 




7 


71 


2.6 




57 


5-2 


3 


5 




8 


14.0 


1-5 




5« 


6.8 


3 


9 




I 9 


I4-S 


1-3 




I 59 


8.2 


3 


I 



college group have been used, but they show that the reader does not 
make use of his full span of attention, for there is a large amount 
of overlapping of the different fields of attention. Take the case 
of subject No. 58, who made 6 . 8 pauses in a seven- to ten-word 
line. With a span of attention of 3 .9 words, she should have read 
the line with about 3 . o instead of 6 . 8 pauses. Further discussion 
will show the importance of such overlapping and that it can be 
reduced by training. 

A second perception test consisted in cutting off the projected 
reading matter while the subject was in the midst of a passage. 
He was asked to keep on reading as far as possible beyond the point 
at which the selection was cut off. Of the eight graded selections, 
each one was cut off three times — at the beginning of a line, in the 
middle, and at the end of a line. A dictaphone was used in connec- 
tion with the apparatus, for projecting the passage. The subject 
read into the dictaphone, and a bell sounded simultaneously with 
the closing of the shutter. 

Tables L and LI give the results in this test for B. R. and W. E. 
Again the advantage is with W. E. Tables LII, LIII, and LIV 
give the results for all subjects. The oral-reading rates indicated 
in the vertical column next to the last are taken from Table V on 
page 22. Certain words were given half-credit as indicated in 



128 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



TABLE L 
Record of B. R. in Second Perception Test 





Selection 


No. of Words 
Reported 


No. of Words 
Incorrect 


No. of Words 
Correct 




I 

2 

3 


4 
3 
3 


O 
O 

I 


4 
3 

2 


Beginning of the line . 


4 
5 


2 

5 


o 
o 


2 

5 




6 

7 
8 


4 

2 
2 


o 
o 
o 


4 

2 

2 
24 

Average = 3.0 




I 


2 


o 


2 




2 


2 


o 


2 




3 


I 


o 


I 


Middle of the line . . . 


4 
5 
6 


2 
O 
2 


o 


2 




o 


2 




7 
8 


5 

2 


o 
o 


S 
2 




I 


o 




16 
Average = 2.0 




2 


2 


o 


2 




3 


3 


o 


3 


End of the line 


4 

1 «^ 


4 

2 


o 
o 


4 
2 




6 


2 


o 


2 




7 
8 


2 
2 


o 


2 
2 

17 
Average = 2.1 



the column for correct words. The same words are scored as in- 
correct in the column for incorrect words. 

In order to bring out the relation which exists between the 
rate of reading and the results of the present test, certain results 
in Table LII have been put in the form of distribution curves 
(Diagram 7). The subjects were grouped on the basis of minimum 
rate for oral reading, Group i including all subjects whose minimum 
rate was o.i-i .0 word per second; Group 2, i .1-2.0 words; etc. 
The group to which any individual belongs is indicated in the last 
column of Table LII. The base line of the diagram indicates the 
number of words that can be read after the exposure is ended. 
The digits at the left indicate the number of subjects. 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



129 



Span of attention 



l.l-ZM \2.I-3J> \3.I-V.I> VU-S-0 



fJ-i-ol U/-s.c\e./-3.o\3J-f.e\*-/-S-i>\S./-i.e\(/-T.o\ \^/-e.o\e./.3o\3./-*.a\¥.i-so\y./-i.c 



Group I (o . i-i . o) Group II (i . 1-2 . o) Group III (2 . 1-3 . o) 

Diagram 7. — Relation between range of recognition and rate of reading 



TABLE LI 
Record or W. E. in Second Perception Test 





Selection 


No. of Words 
Reported 


No. of Words 
Incorrect 


No. of Words 
Correct 




I 


4 





4 




2 


4 





4 




3 


5 





5 


Beginning of the line . 


4 

s 


7 

7 






7 
7 




6 


6 


I 


5 




7 
8 


3 
S 






3 

5 
40 
Average = 5.0 




I 


2 





3 




2 


3 





3 




3 


5 





5 


Middle of the line . . . 


4 
5 
6 

7 


4 
5 
4 
6 






4 
5 








4 
6 




I 8 


3 





3 

32 
Average = 4.0 




I 


7 





7 




2 


4 





4 




3 


S 





5 


End of the line 


4 
5 
6 


7 
2 






7 
2 




6 


2 


4 




7 
8 


3 
3 






3 
3 

35 
Average =4. 3 



130 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



h-i 
< 



Bo 



o o 0) 

ca <u S 
> o 



^2 



o o 



5 B 



15^ 



H<SC>I««««1-IC< 



00 »o to w H cooo 00 W3 « Ti-00 <ooor^OoO O^f<i0^00»- 

?HHHHHI-lOW WtHOOOOHO MOMHHHOO 

iiiiiiTi iiirTTir iriiiiri 

«o C500 T^cor^O^r^t^. ooco r^oO O^vo m t>. oo hi cooO v5 c*)oo <n 

(NPOrhPOWNNHN rC'^fO'NCJINCON tOOco^tfi^^OfJ 



vo t- 'to O ^000 O ^0 






O to W) 01 M O V5VO 



OOhcONO^mO 



H O O O O O H 



OOOOhOOO 



«0'4-iOVOCOCOiOTj-co 000000000000 too 



w O CO ** >00 t^OO O^ O H N CO •* lOO t^ 

tHMtHMHWt-iM 



t^vo t^ Tfoo 00 t^oo 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



131 



<N H M N <>« W 



««« r«5tOtH«rOf»MMtO« M«OMfO«<fO^«N 



\0 <*5 0> "5 t^^O M 



»0 O 00 O^ O CN fO t^^O 



■>i- M 000 « 0> r~ O M vO 



O^WOO M f^w 0»fC 



iTiiii iirririii 

<M r~oo t^ t^»o •* o\ >o t>. r^vO vo ro w w 



1 I r I I I I I I L 
N M r^oo ■«*• rOO t^ ^0 ""i- 



L ' III I I i 



CO CO ^O CO CO ^ CO 



COCOCOCO^CO'^l-'*"* lOTtCOTl-lOTj-Tl-POlOTi- VOTj-'»J-'4-Tl-'*T)-tO 



O 00 r^ O <o O O 
CO * CO Tj- 't >0 CO 



^ Tf •<4- CO CO N Tl-vO >0 10 



t^vO •^ >0 O O t-»00 
p) iOTt>O»OC0>O'l- 



00 000 0000 C^OO 
Ti-vo "* ^ CO 'i- vo Tj- 



OpOOOihO cjOOOOmwwih O'CJOOOmOOmO OOOOOhOw 

O 
U 
a> 

P4 



OOOOOOVOOOOOOO OOvOOO t^OO 00 00 ^ 00 ^ 



■ 00 00 t>.vo l^ TfoO 00 yrxX) '■O 00 t^vo 00 00 



CO 



O 



132 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 






I-] 


H 




P^ 


(^ 






g 


<n 


W 


H 


o 




^ 




rt 




(< 




o 




m 



m 
P 

CO 

1-1 
1-1 

< 



a 


rO >0 w « »o On >000 0» 


t-«\0 VO CO »0 O On N 


»^ N « irjoo 't M CI 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 
H xovo M Oi COOO 0^ m 


TTTTTTrV 


wwmmOmnh 

1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 

H 0> H «0 COOO H O 


rO'l-rOrttH co»on « 


CONCOCJCONWO) 


COM COCOCI CO'+CO 


1 
pj 


00 »0 «5 « w POOO 00 c*5 


« TtOOOOO t^ OOO 


OvOcoONOONt^ 


vo c/500 ■<* PO t^ OM-» t^ 


mmOOOOmO 
00 CO t>-00 O^O W l>» 


mOmmmmOO 

1 r 1 r 1 1 r r 

00 M COOO >0 COOO c< 


'2 
o 


(MWJ'tCOC^N'MI-IM 


CO'ij-COei M M CON 


cOco^^co^COCO 


o o o 

pi 

la 


O fOO M t^t^t^O O 


00 irt r% onOnOOO CO 


\O00nO m m lONOO 


M c<5^cow ccrto M 


COMMMMMCJM 


PlMWCOCO«CO« 


% 


in xn 


m 




1^ 


CO O rt uri t^ lo cooo to 

M C« W H CS 


M O t^ «OvO CO •<t Tf 

COP<MMMMMM 


mmmmp»0<Oco 

C1MWC1C<MC<<S 


1^ 








OOOfOOOOOOM 


MClCtOOQMM 


MOOOOOO<N 


S 0) 

og- 








PO O 'too t^ »o H 00 't 

MOM M CO 


e» c« O>i0>0 CO »0 »o 

COOMMMMMM 


C1MMC<P«00>0 
MMC<WM<NO<M 


•3.1 


CO COVO »0 Tf Tt >0 't CO 


00 00 00 00 00 00 uivO 


00 \0 00 !>• t^OO 00 00 








3 
t/3 


M « CO >* "JVO t^OO O* 


O H C< CO ^ »OvO t^ 


OOOnOm«CO'*io 

MMC^MOIMMC^ 








2 
O 


w 


5 


■^ 


1- 


u 


1 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



133 



00 00 fO M ro >0>0 >0 PO 0> (Xi OoO'ti-i f5»OOOa> fOOO Tt M H 00 HI Tl- Tf COVO i-i 00 

C^Tj-C*M CiH(MWM<SO)CS<N C^fO^^<NM^O»-(MC^(N fOf^fO*NPO(y^cOC4 

... I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I 

O»c<0t-~MO^>0 mtJ-O'4'I-iO^ 00 10 0^ >0 t-» OVO lOWI-IMVO <N0)(NH00O00O 

M >0 CO 'l-O lO-^ Tj-POcOf<OTfir5iOTtro 'tvO Tt ro ■rtO ■* rO lo tJ- 00 00 00 tf^o O « ^ 



? 1 



\0 fO O ro I^vO w coOoOOvOO^tO r^vO tJ- c>) O^00 cs0<t^0i-i<0 OvMOOwt^wOv'^O 

?wOt-(wwM mmOOwOwmm <nwO*-icsmm>hmm mcimowc^mw 

iriiii iiTriTiii iiriiiiiii iiiiiiii 

c^ t^oo t^ r^O Tj- o* 10 f» J>-^ vo to w M (N H t~»oO Tf roo t>. to 'i- ■*00 »o O 00 0\ m O 

ccOCOC5fO'*PO rOPOcOfO'*fO'*rl-rt lOTj-cOTj-vOTj-TffJiOTl- vorfrJ-Tj-rJ-rf'fJ-io 



O 00 Tf t^ ro O VO 
O W trj fTi ^ Tt t>t 



rftO^OTtM lOM WOO 



O^NTttOMWWfO fOW? t^OO 00 00 00 vO 



rOOOOWfOMl^iO OOOpOtJ- ^^-oO 00 



OwhOOOm OOi-iOOOO<r5« O'gOt-iOOOOOM OOOOOO'^O 



f^ 



00 00 00 t^oo 00 00 00 vO 00 00 r-.>0 00 00 r^ t>- 



• 00 00 r^ ■^oo »o t^oo t^ t^oo 00 t^ >ooo O 



CO 



134 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



w 

pp 
< 



1 

Pi 


CO "> M « V5 Oi lOOO 0> 


t^vO \0 CO "5 O 0> f» 


t^ « PI tooo ri- M PI 


mc^pi«ihmc>)Om 


mwwmmmOh 


mhmmOi-iC'-' 

1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 

M 0\ H lO COOO H P 


u5 


w lOO H O^ POOO Ov lO 


corhcO'^tH fO»^>H " 


COP<COMCO<MMCS 


coct cococi cO'<i-co 


1 
O 


00 »0 CO « M rooO 00 CO 


M Tj-00 vO 00 t^ O 00 


0>0c00 <N O Oil^ 


OmwwmmmOh 
1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 t 
>0 cooo ■^ CO !>• O* t^ t^ 


rr ????r? 

00 CO t^OO O^MS w t^ 


mOmmmmOO 

111 1 1 1 r r 

00 w COOO to cooo c^ 


OCO'+COC^PfP'l-'O 


co-'l-fOf^ IN c» cO<N 


cOcOCOrfco-'tr^PO 


III 


i^mcoOiM Oco»o<N 


Ov^OOncoc^vO OoO 


t>. CO t-i O f« t>.0 ^O 


t-i "^-cocow CO'*'-* •-< 


C<COMWI-ll-ICOM 


MC»MCOCO«COP« 




lO lO 


lO to »o 




°a 
1 


1^00 O O>00 « •^O vo 

MOM M CS 


CI C^ M M M M M 


MMMMCIMC^PJ 


5 s 










mOO*0«0<*5»-'0 


vOMCOO«OwO 

• 


wOOOOOOw 


1^ 










ooooO'*0<?<r-.r^i/» 
M e< Ci H M « 


000000 O ti COCOM 

MWMMMMMM 


CO 0> VI too C^ Ov « 

MMMM«MC<C< 




• Tf ^\o «o Tj- Tj- to ■<* •«1- 


00 00 00 00 00 00 -^o 


r-oo t^iooo t^oooo 


CO 








2 

C/3 








M CI CO 'i- >J^O *^oo Oi 


o 11 « wj ■'^ >o>o t^ 


O000i-i<>»"l'*v5 

MMP)C«C1MNC« 


1 


c« 


3 


"ti 


1- 


1/ 


? 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



13s 



^LL'iil 'i.-kL.iJ^ii' iiiiiiiiii II I 

^1 10 CO Tj-O vo-<J- Ti-rorOPCTl-»otO'^«5 rj-io "^ ^O tJ-vO -^ ff> \n -^ 00 00 OO rfO O >0 O 



vO f<1 0> fO r^vO M fOOOOOvOO^fO t^vO Tf c« 0.00 «0>r^O>-i\0 O^P<00i-it^i-«O<c*5 



irilllllTTlTlll lirillllll llll 
<N t-».oo t^ f^vo ■^ o\ to r^ t^vo vo CO w M « M t^oo ^ too f^ fC r^ ^00 lo o 

rOfOtOrOfO'«l-co rOfOtOtOTfrO'*r}-rJ- lortfOTfi/lTtrtfOiOTl- lATfTj-Tj-Tl-Tj-'^io 



W M M IH 

I r i I 

00 Ov iH O 






W « TtOO ^ t^OO >0 t>. O M fO C» M TJ-VO 



0'4"'1'<N0MW mO^>OOwm 



m'SOOOwmOOm 0«0000<*5m 



f4 



00 t^oo 00 00 00 00 00 t^ r>.oo 00 00 00 t^oo »>• 



t^ tx t-« 1000 ■* t>.oo ■'too 00 r>.oo >o t^ t^ 



CO 



J36 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



A study of the diagram shows clearly that, as the rate of reading 
increases, the range of recognition increases. In Group i the range 
of recognition within the limits of 1. 1-2.0 words predominates; 
in Group 2 the range of 4 . 1-5 . o words predominates, and in Group 3 
a range between the limits of 5 . 1-6 . o words predominates. 

It is of interest also to note the average range for various 
parts of the line as reported in Tables LII, LIII, and LIV. The 
average range at the beginning of the line is 3.8 words; at the 
middle and the end of the line, 3 .3 words. The greater range at 
the beginning of the line is probably due to the fact that it is possible 
for the attention to spread over the entire line, while in the other 
cases the longer range is not possible without the attention passing 
to the next line. 

Table LV gives the average range for successive grades. A 
survey of this table shows that the fourth and fifth grades do not 
have results which equal the third grade. From the fifth grade 



TABLE LV 

Average Range of Recognition for Successive 
School Grades 



Grade 


Average No. of Correct Words to the line 


Beginning 


Middle 


End 


•2 


^- ^ 


2. 7 


2.9 

2. I 


4. 


2 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 


9 

2 


3 
6 

7 


2 

2 

3 
3 
4 

4 


4 

7 
I 
6 
5 
4 


e 


2.6 


6 


3-2 
3.6 
4.4 


7 


H.S 


C 


4.2 







there is an increase in the range through the various grades until 
the college group is reached, when the results for the middle of the 
line and the end of the line are not as great as the same results 
for the high-school group. The results for the fourth and fifth 
grades are very interesting. The smaller range in these grades is 
probably due to the fact that the children are in a transition period 
in their training in reading. That is, the fourth and fifth grades are 
the stages in school life at which the child begins to change his mode 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



137 



of reading. When he is called on at this stage to read aloud, his 
attention may be distracted, so that he does less well than he would 
at either an earlier or a later stage. The very small difference 
between the high-school and college groups is probably due to the 
fact that the high-school group has about reached the limit in such 
development, and the differences between the groups may be 
thought of as individual differences. 

Further perception data were procured by using the same type 
of test in silent reading. In this test the reading material was 
projected before the subject, as indicated on page 89. It will be 
remembered that the reading material can be made to disappear 
from the view of the reader by means of a photographic shutter 
which is mounted upon the projecting lantern. The subjects were 
told that the exact point must be noted where the attention was 
focused when the material disappeared, and that the amount of 
the reading material retained beyond that point must be written 
down. The eyes of the subjects were in view of the experimenter, 
and an attempt was made to cut off the Hght at about the fifth 
line, but this attempt did not always succeed. As this test was 
considered too complicated for children, it was given only to the 
college group. In Table LVI the contrast between the results 
in the present test for No. 55, who is a very slow reader, and the 
results for more rapid readers, such as Nos. 54 and 57, indicates 
clearly that the fast silent reader is one whose attention spreads 
over a considerable range of material. 

TABLE LVI 
Range of Recognition in Silent Reading for Adults 



Subject 


Average No. of 
Words per Line 


Silent-Reading 
Rate 


Subject 


Average No. of 
Words per Line 


Silent-Reading 
Rate 


52 

S3 

54 

55 


31 
3-9 
2.7 
I . I 


8.2-3.8 
8.2-3.1 

8.2-3.4 
4.1-2.4 


c6 


2-5 
31 
2.7 
2.0 


6.8-3.3 


57 

S8 

59 


10.0-3.6 
6.8-3.1 
6.0-2.8 



The fact that the fast reader has a long span of attention has 
been fully established by the foregoing paragraphs. The meaning 
of these facts is probably something like this: As the reader looks 



138 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

at a point on the line, he sees some elements clearly and some 
vaguely. The next fixation brings into clear perception elements 
of the line which a moment before were perceived vaguely. There 
is an overlapping of spans of attention, and the expert reader is 
able to take advantage, more completely than the poor reader, 
of a wide range of experience which lies outside the immediate 
center of attention. 

The question of what produces differences in span of attention 
is one which invites consideration. Doubtless these differences 
are in some cases due to inherent differences in the organization of 
the nervous system. Sometimes the differences are due to the 
kind of training which the individual has had in reading. There 
are also general differences, such as that of the level of attention 
at which a subject works, and of the familiarity with language 
forms. 

In order to get data on these various points, further short- 
exposure experiments were carried out. In the first group of 
experiments non-sense syllables, digits, and groups of the same 
digit were exposed to view, instead of the sentences used in the 
experiments just described. In obtaining these results a type of 
apparatus was used which differs from that used in the preceding 
work on perception. This apparatus may be described briefly as 
a camera with ground glass at A (Fig. 8) and an eyeshield at B. 
The letters at which the subject is to look are focused on ^ by a lens 
mounted in the lens board C. Back of this lens board is a chamber, 
not shown in the drawing, with four nitrogen lamps of 100 watts 
each. When these lamps are turned on and the light is allowed to 
come through the lens and fall on ^ , a focused image of any letters 
placed before the lens in the lighted chamber will be seen. The 
actual exposure of letters and figures on A is controlled by the 
camera shutter mounted on the lens. The lens carries on the side 
nearer to A four small short-filament lamps. These lamps are 
intended to keep the glass A illuminated when the shutter is closed. 
The subject is in this way provided at all times with an illuminated 
field. In the small figure at the right of Fig, 8 the details 
of the shutter are shown. As the shutter begins to open, it 
breaks an electric circuit at E and turns off the small lights D at 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



139 



/ 



i^ 


% 


/ p> — =^ 


'X 







lU 





"•U ia 3 d 
< pq U Q H 



I40 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

the same time that it allows light to come from the box back of the 
lens. There is thus a continuous light field at A; sometimes this 
field is an uninterrupted blank, the light coming from the lamps D; 
sometimes it is an image of letters from the box behind the lens. 
The shutter exposes the letters for nine-fiftieths of a second. It 
was tested repeatedly for regularity and proved very satisfactory. 

Tables LVII and LVIII give the results for non-sense material 
and digits for fourteen individuals. With the exception of No. 29 
and No. 30, who have replaced No. 26 and No. 31, they are the same 
as the members of the group of fourteen which has been referred to 
in previous tests. In scoring the results credit was given only for 
those digits or letters which were absolutely correct. The column 
in parentheses gives the results for the first perception test. 

An examination of these results shows clearly that the differ- 
ences between good and poor readers are much less striking for 
perception of digits or the non-sense material than for the type of 
materials used in the preceding perception tests. The differences 
are less marked in the case of the digits than in the case of non-sense 
syllables. 

For the next test zeros were arranged in groups of three, four, 
five, six, or seven. Sample groups of these arrangements are pre- 
sented in the Appendix, page 172. The perception here required 
is not of individual digits, for each digit is like every other. The 
group form is what is seen and recognized. 

The results of this test are in Table LIX. The first column 
indicates the different series and the number of zeros in each expo- 
sure. The exposure time was the same as in other perception tests, 
and the order of poor and good readers is the same as that in the 
preceding tables. "R" indicates a correct response, a dash an 
incorrect response, on the part of the subject. Little, if any, rela- 
tion is shown between the ability required in this test and reading 
ability, for certain of the poor readers have a greater span than the 
good, while in other cases the opposite is true. 

In addition to the tests for perception thus far described two 
Aussage tests were given. The pictures used were those of the 
butcher and the carpenters. The pictures were exposed to the view 
of the subject for ten seconds. Tables LX and LXI give no 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



141 



TABLE LVII 
Perception Records of Fourteen Individuals with Digits 



Grade 


Subject 


Reading 
Ability 


No. of 
Digits Ex- 
posed 


No. of 

DigitsRe- 

ported 


No. of 
Digits In- 
correct 


Perceptual 
Span 


Average No. 
of Digits 
per Line 


Percentage 
Correct 


3 


{ ] 


P 

G 


81 
81 


66 
S6 


23 
17 


(0.7) 
(2.6) 


2.38 
2.16 


44-4 
391 


4 


l;^ 


P 
G 


81 
81 


66 
59 


4 



(1.6) 
(2.7) 


3 40 
3-27 


675 
64.6 


5 


\ 24 


P 
G 


81 
81 


53 
38 


2 

I 


(2.8) 
(2.9) 


2.80 
2.05 


58.8 
45-6 


6 


r 29 
I 30 


P 
G 


81 
81 


63 
40 


II 

5 


(2.5) 
(2.2) 


2.90 
2.00 


58.4 
41. 1 


7 


I 41 


P 
G 


81 
81 


52 
59 



4 


(1.4) 
(3-8) 


2.88 
3.00 


63 -4 
59-2 


H.S . . . . 


/ 49 

I 45 


P 
G 


81 
81 


S8 
51 


6 



(1.4) 
(2.8) 


2.88 
2.80 


58.4 
57-2 


C 


f ^' 
I 54 


P 
G 


8x 
8i 


60 

72 


4 
4 


(3.4) 


3-IO 
3 70 


65-4 
78.6 



TABLE LVIII 

Perception Records of Fourteen Individuals with Non-Sense Material 



Grade 


Subject 


Reading 
Ability 


No. of 
Letters 
Exposed 


No. of 

Letters 

Reported 


No. of 

Letters 

Incorrect 


Perceptual 
Span 


Average No. 
of Letters 
per Line 


Percentage 
Correct 


3 




I 
7 


P 

G 


81 
81 


63 
62 


29 

25 


(0.7) 
(2.6) 


1.88 
2.00 


37 
39 


4 
5 


4 




17 
10 


P 
G 


81 
81 


S6 
45 


8 
6 


(1.6) 
(2.7) 


2.66 
2.16 


52 
44 


6 
8 


s 




19 

24 


P 
G 


81 
81 


46 
34 


4 

I 


(2.8) 
(2.9) 


2.30 
1.80 


46 
39 


9 
9 


6 




29 
30 


P 
G 


81 
81 


55 
50 


17 
I 


(2.5) 
(2.2) 


2.10 
2.70 


43 
58 


2 
8 


7 




36 
41 


P 
G 


81 
81 


37 
58 


9 

5 


(1.4) 
(3.8) 


I-50 
2.90 


30 
60 



I 


H.S ... . 




49 
45 


P 
G 


81 
81 


47 
46 


6 
4 


(1.4) 
(2.8) 


2.27 
2.30 


46 
49 


5 
8 


C 




56 

54 


P 
G 


81 
81 


37 
59 


3 
4 


(3.3) 
(3-4) 


1.90 
3.00 


40 
61 


3 

7 



142 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



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PERCEPTION TESTS 



143 



TABLE LX 
Records of Fourteen Individuals in First Aussage Test 



Grade 


Subject 


Reading AbUity 


No. of Objects 
Reported 


No. of Objects 
Correct 


Writing Time 




/ 
\ 


I 
7 


P 
G 


10 
10 


9 
9 










2:20 


4 


/ 
\ 


17 
10 


P 
G 


6 
13 


6 
9 


1:29 




1:57 


c 


{ 


19 
24 


P 
G 


12 
8 


9 

8 


2:19 




0:54 


6 


{ 


26 
31 


P 
G 


XI 

13 

II 
9 


10 
12 


1:34 






7 


{ 


36 
41 


P 
G 


9 
9 


0:55 




1:42 


H.S 


{ 


49 

45 


P 
G 


8 
16 


8 
16 


1:06 




1:57 


C 


{ 


S6 
54 


P 
G 


II 
13 


II 
10 


0:53 




0:34 



TABLE LXI 
Records of Fourteen Individuals in Second Aussage Test 



Grade 


Subject 


Reading Ability 


No. of Objects 
Reported 


No. of Objects 
Correct 


Writing Time 




/ 
\ 


I 
7 


P 
G 


5 
7 


4 
7 




7, 






2:32 


4 




17 
10 


P 
G 


5 
10 


4 
8 


1:06 




1:40 


c 




19 

24 


P 
G 


9 

7 


8 

7 


1:12 




0:50 


6 




26 
31 


P 
G 


7 
8 


7 
7 


1:05 




0:40 


7 




36 
41 


p 

G 


7 
10 


7 
9 


i:os 




1:27 


H.S 




49 
45 


p 

G 


8 
8 


6 

7 


1:01 
1:00 


C 


/ 
I 


56 
54 


P 
G 


8 

12 


7 
12 


0:40 




0:32 



144 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

evidence of a relation between the results of such a test and 
reading ability. 

We may now return to a discussion of the factors which were 
suggested as making for differences in the span of attention as seen 
in efficient individuals. 

From the experiments which have just been cited it is clear 
that the differences between good and poor readers which appeared 
when meaningful material was used disappeared in large measure 
when non-sense syllables, digits, groups of the same digit, and the 
Aussage tests were used. This seems to prove that the inherent 
differences in mental capacity which exist between members in 
this group are not the causes of differences in span of attention. It 
appears rather that differences in training — that is, acquired 
abilities to deal with meanings — are the source of differences in 
perceptual span. 

If the crucial matter were differences in general familiarity with 
language forms, it would be difficult to explain the large differences 
found within the high-school and college groups, in which the train- 
ing has been sufficient to produce great familiarity with the simple 
material which was used in all the tests. General familiarity with 
language may play some part in the lower grades, but certainly not 
in the upper grades. 

The influence which we are compelled to recognize as most 
important in producing differences in the visual span is the type 
of training which is gained in reading. Certainly the slow reading 
which proceeds word by word and which emphasizes small units 
of thought is a type of training which makes for a small span of 
attention. Later discussion will show the advisability of more 
intensive training in perception for lower-grade children. It is true 
that primary teachers do give training in perception by means of 
the so-called "flash cards," but such work should be extended and 
more adequately controlled. It probably will be desirable to go so 
far as to provide some simple form of apparatus which will enable 
the teacher to control the time of exposure. In addition to this the 
child should be encouraged in rapid silent reading, and every plan 
which makes for grasping the thought in large units should be used 
by the teachers. 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



145 



In the introductory review of investigations which have dealt 
with perception as it relates to the problems in reading, reference 
was made to Ruediger's test for distinct vision. Since Ruediger's 
subjects were adults, it seemed worth while to try the same type of 
test with children. Cards were prepared with a point of fixation 
in the center and either the letter w or w in twelve-point type printed 
either at the right or at the left of this point of fixation. On some 
of the cards the letter was on the right, on others on the left, of the 

TABLE LXII 
Records of Fourteen iNoivrouALS in Distinct- Vision Test 



Grade 


Subject 


Reading 
AbUity 


lomm. 


IS mm. 


20 mm. 


25 mm. 


30 mm. 


3S mm. 


40 mm. 


45 mm. 


50 mm 


« 


{ 5 


P 

G 


3 
5 


6 

5 


4 
6 


4 

I 


2 
4 


2 
3 



3 


4 
5 


3 




4 


A 


/ 17 
\ 10 


P 
G 


8 
7 


7 
7 


5 

8 


5 
7 


5 
6 


5 
5 


5 
7 


2 

7 


2 




4 


t; 


I 24 


P 
G 


7 
6 


6 
6 


8 
7 


7 
3 


7 
5 


7 
5 


7 
2 


4 
4 


5 




2 


6 


r 26 
I 31 


P 
G 


7 
8 


6 

5 


6 

5 


5 
5 


7 
4 


6 
3 


6 

4 


7 
5 


4 




2 




r 36 


P 


8 
8 


7 
5 


8 
8 


6 
5 


7 
5 


4 

7 


4 
6 


8 
6 


4 


7 


I 41 


G 


5 


H.S 


1 49 

I 45 


P 
G 


8 
5 


7 
6 


7 
5 


7 
5 


4 
5 


4 
4 


6 
3 


5 
6 


3 

4 


C 


/ S6 
1 54 


P 
G 


8 
8 


6 

7 


7 
8 


8 
8 


6 
8 


6 
8 


7 
8 


7 
7 


4 
5 



point of fixation. The letters were at different distances from the 
fixation point: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 millimeters. 
The test consists in exposing the card for a brief interval. The 
observer must then determine, while fixating the central point, 
whether the letter is an w or a «. 

Table LXI gives the number of right answers under each con- 
dition, eight exposures being given for each distance. The following 
points may be noted : 

I. If the records of the poor readers are compared with the 
records of the good readers in the same grade, it will be found that 



146 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

in the fifth and sixth grades and in the high school the poor readers 
do better in this test than do the good readers, 

2. The fourth grade does better in this test than does the third 
grade. From this point there seems to be no great difference in the 
results for the various grades. 

3. In general it may be said that the distances at which 75 per 
cent of the judgments are correct is greater than in Ruediger's 
tests. This is probably due to the fact that the time allowed for 
the exposure in this test was much greater than in Ruediger's work. 

4. The conclusion to be reached is the same as that found by 
Ruediger — namely, that there is no relation between span of distinct 
vision and rate of reading; in other words, differences in rate of 
reading are not due to physiological differences in the retina. 

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 

1. There is a close relation between the rate of reading and the 
span of attention as shown in the tests where meaningful material 
is used. 

2. The differences between the span of attention of the good and 
poor reader disappear in a very large measure when non-sense 
syllables, digits, groups of the same digit, or the Aussage test are 
given. 

3. Little difference is seen in the two types of readers when a 
distinct- vision test is given. 

4. Large differences in the span of attention do not seem to be 
inherent and are probably produced by the type of training given 
by the school. 



CHAPTER V 

EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 
IN READING 

The practical school problem suggested by the preceding 
chapters is the development of methods and devices whereby the 
efl&ciency of the poor reader can be increased. A list of possible 
experimental types of training follows: 

1. Training in oral reading to reduce — 
a) Mispronunciations 

6) Omissions 

c) Insertions 

d) Substitutions 

e) Repetitions 

2. Training to promote eflSciency in various phases of feral reading, such 
as — 

a) Poise 

b) Pitch 

c) Articulation 

d) Pronunciation 

e) Emphasis 
/) Force 

g) Interpretation 
h) Inflection 

3. Training in rapid vocalization 

4. Training in rapid silent reading 

5. Training in silent reading for the purpose of — 

a) Answering questions orally 

b) Answering questions in writing 

c) Oral reproduction 

d) Written reproduction 

e) Outlining 

6. Training in breathing as it relates to oral reading 

7. Training for the purpose of reducing vocalization in silent reading 

8. Training for the purpose of increasing perceptual span 

9. Training in eye-movements 

This list is not exhaustive nor is it thought that any one indi- 
vidual needs training in all of these lines, but there are individuals 

147 



148 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



who would be benefited by each of the types of training which have 
been catalogued above. 

TABLE LXIII 
Record of B. R. in Silent Reading after Practice 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 


1:04 
:i3 

:47 
:i8 


I.O 
5-0 


4 
3 

2 

3 


30 
2.0 


1 : 53 (before practice) 


6 


i:ii (after practice) 






7 


Gain 400 
per cent 

1-3 
3-4 


Loss 33 
per cent 

i-S 

2-5 


1:31 (before practice) 


7 


:S3 (after practice) 








Gain 162 
per cent 


Gain 67 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 

6 


1:07 
:23 


1.6 
4.6 


40.9 
34-1 


4:27 (before practice) 
1 : 43 (after practice) 




Gain 188 per cent 


Loss 17 per cent 





Speed 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 

2 


:33 
:i8 

:4S 
:2S 


3-1 

5-3 


30.0 
SS-O 


2:03 (before practice) 
2 : 00 (after practice) 


3 

3 


Gain 71 per cent 

2-3 

41 


Gain 83 per cent 

26.1 
17-4 


2 : 06 (before practice) 
152 (after practice) 




Gain 78 per cent 


Loss 33 per cent 





Four of the types of training on this list — training in speed, 
training to decrease vocalization, training to increase perceptual 
span, and training in comprehension — were selected for experi- 
mentation, and the methods and results will be discussed in this 
chapter. 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 149 
FIRST TYPE OF TRAINING IN SPEED 

B. R., a slow reader, and W. E., a rapid reader, were selected for 
training in speed. A college student interested in the problems of 
reading was put in charge of the work. 

Two types of training were given. The first was practice in 
short-exposure work. Four types of material were used — sense 
material, non-sense syllables, as HYGP, digits, as 597, and groups 
of the digit zero. The apparatus used was a simple form of 
tachistoscope in which a falling plate gave the exposure. Each 
kind of material was included in each period of practice. From 
fifteen to twenty minutes were devoted daily to this work. 

In addition to the foregoing work the subject was given training 

in rapid reading. From fifteen to twenty minutes were given in 

each practice period to this kind of reading. The directions given 

were to the effect that the reading was to be done rapidly, even at 

the expense, if necessary, of comprehension. This rapid reading 

was followed by a test of comprehension, which consisted either of 

oral or of written reproduction. The practice continued for twenty 

days in each case. 

TABLE LXIV 

Record of W. E. in Silent Reading after Practice 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


c 


:i4 
:o6 

:i4 
■.66 

:2i 
:io 


5.6 
13.0 


S 

5 

5 
5 

5 
5 


4.0 
30 


3:32 (before practice) 
1 : 42 (after practice) 


c 




6 


Gain 132 
per cent 

4.6 
10.8 


Loss 25 
per cent 

2-5 

1-5 


4 : 05 (before practice) 


6 


2:21 (after practice) 




7 


Gain 135 
per cent 

30 
6.2 


Loss 40 
per cent 

4.0 
30 


1 : 39 (before practice) 
.... (after practice) 


7 








Gain 107 
per cent 


Loss 25 
per cent 





Tables LXIII and LXIV give the results in silent reading for 
each subject. The reading was of various t3^es — reading for 



150 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

answering questions, for reproduction, and for speed. Tables LXV 
and LXVI show the material read during the different practice 

TABLE LXV 
Material Read and Rates Attained by B. R. in Practice Period 

Reading 
Selections Rate 

I 

5 
6 
6 

7 

I 

2 

4 
5 
8 

S 

2 
2 
S 



"Little Thumb," Riverside Fourth Reader 4 

Boy Scouts' Hand Book 5 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 4 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 4 

"The Enchanted Horse," Riverside Fifth Reader 3 

"Johnny Darter," Alexander Fourth Reader 5 

"A Narrow Escape," Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Sixth Year 3 

"A Narrow Escape," Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Sixth Year 3 

Skipper, Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Fourth Year 5 

Skipper, Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Fourth Year. ....... 5 

"A New Teacher and a Bad Boy," Horace Mami Fifth Reader 4 

"Twin Babies," Spaulding and Bryce Fifth Reader 6 

"Twin Babies," Spaulding and Bryce Fifth Reader 5 

"Opeechee," Jones Sixth Reader 6 

TABLE LXVI 



Material Read and Rates Attained by W. E. in Practice Period 

Reading 
Selections Rate 



"Northern Europe," Youth's Companion Series 7 

"The Colonists and the Revolution" 4 

"Little Thumb," Riverside Fourth Reader 10 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 8 

" Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 8 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 10 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 8 

"Midget," Riverside Sixth Reader 8 

"In the Factory," Riverside Seventh Reader 7 

"In the Factory," Riverside Seventh Reader 7 

"The Enchanted Horse," Riverside Fifth Reader 9 

"A Narrow Escape," Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Sixth Year 3 

Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Sixth Year 7 

Carpenter and Baker Language Reader, Sixth Year 6 



periods, together with the rate attained with each passage. These 
tables show clearly that B. R. makes very large improvement in 
rate of reading, the greatest increase being 400 per cent and the 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 151 

smallest 71 per cent. The results for comprehension are not so 
uniform. However, it must be remembered that the training did 
not emphasize the meaning element in reading. In three cases 
there is a distinct loss and in two a distinct gain. The record of 
W. E. is equally interesting and shows increase in rate for every 
test, while, on the other hand, there is a loss in each case in the 
matter of comprehension. 

Records were taken for span of perception before and after 
practice. The results are given in Table LXVII. 

TABLE LXVII 

Record of B. R. and W. E. in Perception before and 
AFTER Practice 



No. OF Words 
Exposed 


Average No. of Words 
Correct — B.R. 


Average No. of Words 
Correct— W.E. 


Before Practice 


After Practice 


Before Practice 


After Practice 


2 


2.0 

I.O 

1-3 
1-3 
1.6 


1-7 
2.0 
1.8 

2.3 

1.8 


2.0 

30 
4.0 

4-3 
5-6 


2.0 


■I 


2.7 
4.0 

4-7 
6.0 


4 


s 

6 



These results in perception show that no striking change was 
made in the span of attention. Perhaps the period of training was 
too brief, or perhaps Whipple (44) is right in holding that it is 
impossible to increase the span of attention by practice. Later 
experiments, it may be remarked, show that results different from 
those here obtained with a pupil from the sixth grade are secured 
if younger pupils are put through the same type of training. 

Three months after the practice ended these boys were given 
the same tests which were given before and after practice, except 
that the speed tests were omitted. The purpose of this repeated 
test was to determine in what degree their increase in efficiency 
was permanent. 

Tables LXVIII and LXIX give results in these tests. Both 
subjects lose in the rate of reading when preparing to answer ques- 
tions, while B. R. has the same rate for the reproduction test as 
he had at the time the practice was finished. On the comprehension 



152 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



side B. R. shows a distinct loss in reproduction, while W. E. shows 
a loss in questions answered. However, the important fact to be 
noted here is that the losses which were sustained in rate do not 

TABLE LXVIII 

Record of B. R. in Silent Reading after a Period of Three Months 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 


••47 
:i8 
:i6 


I.O 

S-o 
4.0 


2 

3 

4 


1-5 
2-5 
2-5 


1:31 (before practice) 
: 53 (after practice) 
: 40 (interval after 
practice) 


6 


6 






Loss 20 
per cent 


o 



Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of 
Points Correct 


Writing Time 


6 

6 

6 


1:07 
:23 
:23 


1.6 
4-6 
4.6 


40.9 
34.1 


4:32 (before practice) 
1 : 43 (after practice) 
2 : 30 (interval after 
practice) 







Loss 60 per cent 



TABLE LXIX 
Record of W. E. in Silent Reading after a Period of Three Months 

Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 


:i4 
:o6 
:o9 


4.6 

10.8 

7.2 


5 
5 
S 


2-5 

i-S 

•5 


4:05 (before practice) 
2:21 (after practice) 
: 24 (interval after 
practice) 


6 


6 






Loss 33 
per cent 


Loss 67 
per cent 



in any case carry the reader back to the point at which he started 
before the practice period. Possibly it should also be emphasized 
again that, while there are losses in comprehension, yet the training 
did not deal with this phase of reading. 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 153 

Another check on the effect of the practice was secured by taking 
a record of the eye-movements. Table LXX gives the number of 

TABLE LXX 
Eye-Movement Records of B. R. and W. E. before and after Practice 

(Selection 6) 



B. R. 


W. E. 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 

No. of Regressive 

Movements 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 

No. of Regressive 

Movements 


6.1 
8.4 


iS-4 
12.6 


4.5 (before 

practice) 
1 . 2 (after 

practice) 
1 . 2 (interval after 

practice) 


4.6 
4.6 
S-4 


II. 
11. S 


1 . (before 

practice) 
.8 (after 

practice) 

1 . 5 (interval after 
practice) 







pauses and regressive movements. A very decided decrease in the 
number of pauses and regressive movements is seen in the record 
of B. R. after practice. A decrease is also to be noted in the length 
of the pauses. No great change is made by W. E. in his record, 
and this probably indicates that he did not work up to the standard 
which he had attained in the practice period. After the interval 
of three months B. R. had lost 37 per cent, as shown by the number 
of pauses, but the number of regressive movements have not 
decreased. In this test W. E. does not show results as good as in 
either of the other tests. 



A CONTROL EXPERIMENT 

It may be argued by some that the later results in these cases 
are to be attributed to the regular school training as much as to the 
special training given in reading. It is true also that a part of the 
improvement may be due to the fact that the same material was 
used both before and after practice. 

As a check on these matters two other boys from the same grade, 
one a good reader and the other a poor reader were given the same 
tests that they had taken earlier in the year„ These tests were 
also the same as those taken by B. R. and W. E. before and after 



154 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



practice. Subject 30 did not take reproduction test on account of 
lack of time. 

Tables LXXI and LXXII give results for these subjects. In 
both cases there is, indeed, an increase in speed for every test, but 

TABLE LXXI 

Record of Subject No. 30 in Silent Reading before and after a Period 

OF Three Months 

Answering Qxjestions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


c 


:i3 
:ii 

:i4 
:ii 

:i3 
:i2 


6.0 
7.0 


5 
5 

4 
5 

5 
S 


4.0 
3-5 


1 : 53 (before interval) 


e 


1:12 (after interval) 






6 


Gain 17 
per cent 

4.6 
6.0 


Loss 13 
per cent 

4.0 
30 


1 : 39 (before interval) 


6 


1:18 (after interval) 






7 


Gain 30 
per cent 

4.8 


Loss 25 
per cent 

4.0 
30 


1 : 43 (before interval) 


7 


1 : 13 (after interval) 








Gain 6 
per cent 


Loss 25 
per cent 





Speed 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 

2. ...... . 


:i8 
:i3 

:23 
:i5 


5-3 
7-3 


550 
65.0 


2 : 58 (before interval) 
2 : 29 (after interval) 


3' 

3 


Gain 38 per cent 

4-5 
7.0 


Gain 18 per cent 

13.0 
239 


1 : 54 (before interval) 
1:15 (after interval) 




Gain 56 per cent 


Gain 84 per cent 





the increase shown is not so great as in the case of W. E. and B. R. 
The results for comprehension are quite similar to those for W. E. 
and B. R. — that is, in some cases there is a loss and in others there 
is a gain. 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 155 

Tables LXXIII and LXXIV give data regarding the eye- 
movements of the same individuals before and after the interval. 

TABLE LXXII 

Record of Subject No. 29 in Silent Reading before and after a Period 

OF Three Months 

Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


e 


:i9 
:2o 

:29 

:i8 

:30 
:23 


4-1 
3-9 


4 
4 

5 
4 

4 
2 


I.O 
2.0 


1 : 50 (before interval) 


c; 


1 : 03 (after interval) 






6 


Loss 5 per 
cent 

2-3 

3-6 


Gain 100 
per cent 

4.0 
4.0 


2 : 39 (before interval) 


6 


1 : 06 (after interval) 






7 


Gain 56 
per cent 

2. 1 
2.7 




2-5 

2.0 


1 : 47 (before interval) 


7 


: 34 (after interval) 








Gain 29 
per cent 


Loss 20 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 

6 


:57 
:36 


1.8 
29 


36.3 
So.o 


6 : 09 (before interval) 
2.41 (after interval) 




Gain 61 per cent 


Gain 38 per cent 





Speed 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 

2 


:26 
:i8 

:42 
■.30 


3-6 

5-2 


450 
25.0 


2:30 (before interval) 
1:16 (after interval) 


3 

3 


Gain 44 per cent 

2-5 

3-4 


Loss 44 per cent 

0.0 
0.0 


:32 (before interval) 
:46 (after interval) 




Gain 36 per cent 





156 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



It will be seen from this that there is but little change in this phase 
of their reading. This result emphasizes the fact that the decrease 
which appeared in the records of B. R. on page 153 is due in a large 
degree to the practice which he had received. 

TABLE LXXIII 

Eye-Movement Records of Subject No. 2q before and after a Period 
OF Three Months 



Selection 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average No. of Regressive 
Movements 


Selection 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average No. of Regressive 
Movements 


6 

6 


6.3 
7.8 


I . I (before interval) 
. 5 (after interval) 


7 

7 


6.6 
6.6 


I . I (before interval) 
. 6 (after interval) 



TABLE LXXIV 

Eye-Movement Records of Subject No. 30 before and after a Period 
OF Three Months 



Selection 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average No. of Regressive 
Movements 


Selection 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average No. of Regressive 
Movements 


6 

6 


5-8 
6.6 


. 5 (before interval) 
. 4 (after interval) 


7 

7 


6.3 
5-8 


1 . 3 (before interval) 
1 . 2 (after interval) 



The positive results of the training maybe summarized as follows: 

1. Such training results in marked increases in the rate of 
reading. 

2. The decreases in rate of reading which are to be noted after a 
lapse of three months do not carry the reader back to the point at 
which he started before practice. 

3. Only slight increases in rate are to be noticed in readers who 
have not been trained. Hence the increase in the rate of subjects 
who have been trained may be regarded as due to the practice 
given. 

4. The increase in rate, as seen in the reading of W. E. and 
B. R. after practice, is accompanied by a marked decrease in the 
number of eye pauses per line. 

The negative results may be summarized now as follows: 
I. Such training as that described does not change comprehen- 
sion in any material way. 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 157 

2. Such training does not increase the span of attention for 
sixth-grade children. 

SECOND TYPE OF TRAINING IN SPEED 

In this part of the work two slow readers were selected, one of 
whom left school, on account of sickness, before the training was 
completed. The subject who finished the experiment was a fifth- 
grade girl (No. 20). The tutor in this case was a college student. 

The period of practice was from fifteen to twenty minutes per 
day for twenty days. Speed was the aim here, at the expense of 
comprehension, if necessary. Nevertheless, comprehension was 
always checked up by oral reproduction. The practice differs from 
that given in the preceding experiment in that no short-exposure 
work was given. The material for the training was carefully 
selected, so as not to be too difficult and yet to require considerable 
effort on the part of the reader. Table LXXV gives the results 
obtained by having the subject take the same tests before and after 
practice. 

In every test there is a very decided improvement in speed. 
In only two of the tests is there any decrease in comprehension, and 
in each case this loss is on the most difficult test of the series. If 
the percentage of increase in rate of D. E., in Table LXXV, is com- 
pared with the percentage of increase in rate for B. R. and W. E., 
on page 152, it will be seen that with one exception the gains made 
by D. E. compare favorably with those of B. R. and W. E. 

The positive result of this experiment may be stated as follows : 
Training in rapid reading without training in perception produces 
as marked increase in the rate of reading as when both types of 
training are given. 

The negative result of this work may be stated as follows: A 
decrease in comprehension is to be noted in certain tests given. 
Such a decrease is found only in the more difficult work. 

TRAINING FOR INCREASE IN SPAN OF ATTENTION 

In the drill work for speed which was described at the beginning 
of the chapter two kinds of practice were given — short-exposure 
drill and reading for speed. The next type of drill to be described 



IS8 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



is that in which short exposure is used alone. The same material 
and same short-exposure apparatus described on page 149 were 
used. The purpose here was to determine whether such practice 
will increase the length of the perceptual span for children of the 

TABLE LXXV 

Record of a Subject before and after Practice in Speed Reading 

Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


4. 


:27 
:iS 

:46 
:i7 

:i6 


2-5 
4.6 


5 

5 

5 
4 

5 
3 


3-5 
4.0 


2:31 (before practice) 
1 : 36 (after practice) 


4. 




c 


Gain 84 
per cent 

1-7 
4.6 


Gain 14 
per cent 

2.0 
30 


2:15 (before practice) 
: 59 (after practice) 


c 




7 


Gain 171 
per cent 

1.2 
3-8 


Gain 50 
per cent 

2.0 
•5 


2:27 (before practice) 


7 


: 43 (after practice) 






Gain 217 
per cent 


Loss 75 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


s 

5 


= 52 
:2s 

1:16 
:28 


2.0 
41 


3S-0 


2 : 43 (before practice) 
1 : 24 (after practice) 


7 

7 


Gain 105 per cent 

1.8 
4.8 




26.5 
20.6 


2:21 (before practice) 
1:41 (after practice) 




Gain 167 per cent 


Loss 22 per cent 





fourth grade. The subjects for Whipple's work in an experiment 
of the same kind were adults, and our own earlier results (page 151) 
show that such drill is not effective in the sixth grade; it was there- 
fore thought worth while to try the same kind of work with much 
younger children. Two subjects were used, one a girl and the other 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 159 



a boy, both from the fourth grade. It may be added that these 
children had shown a limited perceptual span in the earlier experi- 
ments. 

Tables LXXVI and LXXVII give results in these tests. For 
No. 17 there is a decided increase in every case, while in the record 
of No, 15 there is an increase in every case, except in the six-word 
series, and here the two averages are the same. 

TABLE LXXVI 

Record of Subject No. 15 before and after Short-Exposure Practice 



Average on 
2 Words 


Average on 
3 Words 


Average on 
4 Words 


Average on 
S Words 


Average on 
6 Words 


Average on 7 Words 


1.8 
2.0 


2-5 
30 


2-5 
4.0 


30 
4-3 


3-3 
3-3 


Omitted (before practice) 
3 . 5 (after practice) 


TABLE LXXVII 

Record of Subject No. 17 before and after Short- ExpostmE Practice 


Average on 
2 Words 


Average on 
3 Words 


Average on 
4 Words 


Average on 
S Words 


Average on 
6 Words 


Average on 7 Words 


1-3 
2.0 


I.O 

30 


1.6 
4.0 


3-9 


2.2 

3-3 


2 . (before practice) 
3 . 5 (after practice) 



In considering these results it should be remembered that the 
practice given was the same as in the case of the sixth-grade boys 
whose negative results are reported on page 151. Attention may 
be called also to the fact that the practice work was done with a 
fall-exposure apparatus, while the original and final series were given 
with the apparatus described on page 139. This eliminates to a 
large degree the element of adjustment to the apparatus and makes 
the marked increase in the perceptual span the more significant. 
The importance of a wide span of attention, as shown in the pre- 
ceding chapter, makes this result all the more valuable. It seems 
that positive results can be obtained if the training is undertaken 
as early as the fourth year. In the light of these facts it may be 
repeated here that without doubt the type of training which is 
given in primary work by means of the flash cards is a very impor- 
tant element in the early training in reading. It is also clear that 



i6o 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



the foregoing results indicate the desirability of a better grading 
and control of such work. Incidentally the result makes it clear 
that training must come at the time in a child's development when 
it can produce results. Late training is often not effective. 



TRAINING IN COMPREHENSION 

Another problem attacked was that of measuring the effect of 
practice in comprehension. Two subjects were used — one a fourth- 
grade boy and the other a sixth-grade boy. Both subjects had 
shown in the oral- and silent-reading tests that they were not 
efficient in comprehension. The tutor was a college student. 

TABLE LXXVIII 

Record of Subject No. 14 before and after Training in Comprehension 

Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


4 


:4i 
:2i 

:46 
= 31 


1-7 
3-3 


S 
5 

5 
5 


3-5 
30 


2 : 2,2, (before practice) 


4 


2:28 (after practice) 






e 


Gain 94 
per cent 

1.7 

2-5 


Loss 14 
per cent 

2.5 

4-5 


2 : 19 (before practice) 


e 


2 : 20 (after practice) 








Gain 47 
per cent 


Gain 80 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


4 

4 


1:06 


1.9 
2-3 


20.0 
44 


3:31 (before practice) 
4:32 (after practice) 




Gain 21 per cent 


Gain 120 per cent 





The training here consisted in reading selections carefully with 
a view to emphasizing those elements on which the meaning 
depended. Such matters were discussed as topic sentences, rela- 
tional words, effect of different types of modifying phrases, etc. 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES i6i 

In short, an attempt was made to give the subjects a feeling for 
language. Such practice was continued for twenty days. The 
time for each day was from twenty to thirty minutes. Tables 
LXXVIII and LXXIX give results in this work. 

TABLE LXXIX 
Record of Subject No. 27 before and after Training in Comprehension 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 


= 35 
:i9 

:i6 
:i8 


1.8 
3-4 


S 

5 

5 

5 


30 

2.5 


2 : 38 (before practice) 


6 


1 : 06 (after practice) 






7 


Gain 89 
per cent 

3-7 
3-4 


Loss 17 
per cent 

2-5 

1-5 


3:32 (before practice) 
1:37 (after practice) 


7 






Loss 8 per 
cent 


Loss 40 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 

6 


:35 
:25 

1:10 

:42 


30 
4.2 


54-4 
40.9 


4:47 (before practice) 
3:16 (after practice) 


8 

8 


Gain 40 per cent 

1-7 
2.9 


Loss 25 per cent 

50.0 
41.6 


S : 03 (before practice) 
4:25 (after practice) 




Gain 71 per cent 


Loss 17 per cent 





The positive results of this work may be summarized as follows : 

1. Training in comprehension increases the rate of reading. 

2. A gain in comprehension is made in two tests by one subject. 
These gains are greater than any which have been seen in the 
previous experiments. 

The negative results may be summarized as follows: A loss 
in comprehension is shown in one test by No. 14 and in all the tests 
by No. 27. The results of the latter subject may be due to his 
attitude, which was reported by his instructor as adverse to the 



l62 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



training. Comment on these results is hardly needed. One is 
impressed with the fact that, like much of our school work, training 
accomplishes only a part of what it aims to secure. 

TRAINING TO REDUCE VOCALIZATION 

Another type of practice given was concerned with the decrease 
of vocalization during silent reading. Two subjects, Nos. i6 and 
28, who showed this habit in a marked degree, were selected for 
this practice work. The instructor was a college student. 

TABLE LXXX 

Record of Subject No. 28 before and after Practice in the Decrease 

OF Vocalization 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 


132 
:34 

= 45 
:i7 


1.9 
1.9 

1-3 
3-6 


4 
3 

2 

I 


1-5 
2.0 

■ s 


1 : 23 (before practice) 


6 


: 44 (after practice) 


7 


1:27 (before practice) 


7 


(after practice) 








Gain 177 
per cent 


Loss 75 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


6 

6 


1:10 
:27 

i:ii 
:38 


3-9 


36.3 
36.2 


3 : 49 (before practice) 
2:12 (after practice) 


8 

8 


Gain 160 per cent 
1-7 

3-2 


Loss . 2 per cent 

18.7 
0.0 


3:25 (before practice) 
0:00 (after practice) 




Gain 88 per cent 


Loss 100 per cent 





The practice given here was begun with an explanation of some 
of the difiSculties to which a large degree of vocahzation makes the 
reader susceptible. The subjects were told to read in their natural 
way, except that they were to read without vocalization. Compre- 
hension was tested either with oral questions or with oral reproduc- 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 163 

tions. That the practice was effective was shown by the fact that 
no vocalization was noted when the subjects took the final tests. 
Their instructor reported that at first there was considerable distrac- 
tion caused by the attempts to eliminate the vocalization. There 
was, however, a gradual decrease in this distraction, and before the 
end of the practice period the reactions of the children seemed 
perfectly normal. The practice continued for twenty days. The 
length of time for each day was from twenty to thirty minutes. 
The results obtained by having the subjects take the same tests 
before and after practice are shown in Tables LXXX and LXXXI. 

TABLE LXXXI 

Record of Subject No. 16 before and after Practice in the Decrease 

OF Vocalization 



Answering Questions 



Selection 



Time 



Rate 



Questions 
Attempted 



Questions 
Correct 



Writing Time 



4 
4 

5 

5 



;28 
:i7 



■53 
•J46 



2-5 

4.0 



Gain 60 
per cent 

1-5 
1-7 



4-5 
4.0 



Loss II 
per cent 

45 
4.0 



6:12 (before practice) 
3:28 (after practice) 



4:15 (before practice) 
2 : 40 (after practice) 



Loss 13 
per cent 



Loss II 
p>er cent 



Reproduction 


Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


4 

4 


1:09 


1.8 

2-5 


28.0 
48.0 


4:50 (before practice) 
6:04 (after practice) 




Gain 39 per cent 


Gain 71 per cent 





The positive results of this experiment may be summarized as 
follows : 

I. Training in reading without vocalization results in a marked 
decrease in this motor accompaniment of reading. 



i64 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

2. Training of the type mentioned above results in an increase 
in rate. In considering these results for gain in rate it should be 
remembered that the practice work was done at the normal 
rate. 

The negative results may be summarized as follows: 

I. In five of the seven tests taken by the two subjects there is a 
loss in comprehension; in one of the tests no change is shown in the 
results for comprehension ; and in one test there is a gain. 

These results indicate that vocalization in the case of these 
children was a help in comprehension and that when it was removed 
there is a decrease in comprehension. It would be very interesting 
to know whether further practice would decrease the handicap under 
which such pupils work in being deprived of their vocalization. It 
is possible that the mental activity of children proceeds in a large 
measure in terms of vocal reactions and that the process of abridging 
these reactions must be a slow and gradual process. 

TRAINING IN PHONICS 

Attention has already been called to the fact that certain pupils 
have difficulty with reading because their visual vocabulary is 
very much limited — that is, they do not recognize words easily 
and readily, and they have no methods at hand by which they can 
acquire new words. Two third-grade boys who had this type of 
difficulty were given training in phonics. The practice work did 
not include any reading. The results obtained by having subjects 
take the same tests both before and after practice are shown in 
Tables LXXXII and LXXXIII. 

The positive results obtained by such training may be sum- 
marized as follows: 

1. In six of the seven tests taken by the two subjects there is an 
increase in rate. 

2. In one test there is an increase in comprehension. 
The negative results may be summarized as follows: 

1. In one of the tests there is a decrease in rate. 

2. In five of the tests there is a loss in comprehension. 

By way of general summary of the whole chapter it may be 
commented : 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 165 

I. That while the results given in the chapter cannot be con- 
sidered as final, and there is a very great need of more work with 
a larger number of children, yet it is quite clear that speed, compre- 
hension, and vocalization can be changed and modified in a positive 
direction by practice. It is true also that the perceptual span can 
be increased if the training is given early in the child's school life. 

TABLE LXXXII 

Record of StrsjECT No. 5 before and after Practice in Phonics 



Answering Questions 



Selection 



Time 



Rate 



Questions 
Attempted 



Questions 
Correct 



Writing Time 



3 

3 

4 
4 



132 
:i7 



:38 
:26 



1-7 
3-2 



Gain 88 
per cent 

1.8 
2.6 



2.0 



Loss 25 
per cent 

4.0 
S-o 



.•47 (before practice) 
2:37 (after practice) 



1:36 (before practice) 
(after practice) 



Gain 44 
per cent 



Gain 25 
per cent 



Reproduction 


Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 

2 


:29 

:22 


2.1 
2.8 


68.8 
53-1 


(before practice) 

(after practice) 




Gain 33 per cent 


Loss 23 per cent 





2. That it was evident in the training that there is need of a 
careful technique for the different types of practice and that espe- 
cially trained instructors are a necessity if such training is to be 
carried very far. 

3. That it is an open question as to just how far certain types 
of training should be carried, as shown by the falling off in compre- 
hension in many cases. 

4. That rate lends itself to improvement by different methods. 
Such an increase can be brought about by training in rapid reading, 



i66 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



by training in decreasing vocalization, by training in phonics, and 
by training in comprehension. In three of these methods speed 
in reading was not emphasized, and yet in each case there is a marked 
increase in rate. In other words, it seems that if the attention of 
the reader is directed to any one of these four phases of the reading 
process the result is an increase in rate. 

TABLE LXXXIII 
Record of Subject No. i before and after Practice in Phonics 



Answering Questions 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 


•.30 
:36 

•.30 
:29 


1.8 


S 
5 

4 
4 


30 
2.0 


: 58 (before practice) 
1 : 16 (after practice) 


2 




A 


Loss i^ 
per cent 

2.3 
2.4 


Loss 33 
per cent 

30 

2-5 


1 : 03 (before practice) 
I : so (after practice) 


4. 






Gain 4 
per cent 


Loss 17 
per cent 





Reproduction 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Percentage of Points 
Correct 


Writing Time 


2 

2 


:32 

:28 

■52 
:36 


1.9 
2.2 


62.5 
25.0 


(before practice) 

1 : 41 (after practice) 


3 

3 


Gain 16 per cent 

.6 
.8 


Loss 60 per cent 

20.0 
20.0 


(before practice) 

1 : 19 (after practice) 




Gain 33 per cent 








The permanence of an increase in rate produced by training in 
rapid reading is marked. It appears that after a lapse of three 
months there was a slight decrease in rate, yet such a decrease does 
not take the subject back to the point at which he began before the 
practice. 

Such an increase in rate can best be explained by saying that 
the subject whose rate is increased learns to work at a higher level 



EFFECT OF PRACTICE UPON CERTAIN DIFFICULTIES 167 

of attention. The effect is an increase in the span of attention. 
That the span of attention is increased when the rate is increased 
is shown in the eye-movement records of B. R., as reported in the 
first experiment of this chapter. These records show a marked 
decrease in the number of pauses for this subject after training, 
which means that he makes use of a greater span of attention in his 
reading. That such an increase in the span of attention is possible 
is shown by the fact that in Table XXXVIII his average number of 
pauses per line is 15.5. This is less than a word per pause. His 
span of attention as shown in Table XL VIII is between one and 
two words. From this he should be able to read a ten-word line 
in seven or eight pauses. The training given such persons in read- 
ing seems to show them new possibilities as to their ability in read- 
ing. One boy expressed this thought when he said, "I have just 
found out that I can read fast." 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Abell, Adelaide M. "Rapid Reading," Educational Review, VIII, 283. 

2. Baxt, N. " Ueber die Zeit welche nothig ist, damit ein Gesichtseindruck 
zum Bewusstsein kommt," Pfliiger's Archiv fiir Physiologic, IV (1871), 
325-36. 

3. Brown, H. A. The Measurement of Ability to Read. Bureau of Research, 
Department of Public Instruction, Concord, N. H. 

4. Cattell, J. McK. "Reactions and Perceptions," Essays Philosophical and 
Psychological (James), 1908, pp. 569-84; "Time and Space in Vision," 
Psychological Review, VII (1900), 325, 343; "The Inertia of the Eye and 
Brain," Brain, VIII (1886), 295-313; Mind, 1886, pp. 65 and 531 ff.; 
ibid., 1889; Philosophische Studien, II, III; "Ueber die Zeit der Erken- 
nung und Benennung von Schriftzeichen, Bildern und Farben," Philo- 
sophische Studien, II (1885), 634-50. 

5. Courten, H. C. "Involuntary Movements of the Tongue," Yale Psycho- 
logical Studies, X (1902). 

6. Courtis, S. A. "Standard Tests in EngHsh," Elementary School Teacher, 
XIV (April, 1914), 374-92; "Standards in Rates of Reading," Fourteenth 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I, pp. 44- 
55, 1915- 

7. Curtis, H. S. "Automatic Movements of the Larynx," American 
Journal of Psychology, XI (1889). 

8. Dearborn, Walter F. "The Psychology of Reading," Columbia Uni- 
versity Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology, XIV, No. i (New York: 
The Science Press). 

9. Dockeray, F. C. "The Span of Vision in Reading and the Legibihty of 
Letters," Journal of Educational Psychology, I (1910), 123-31. 

:o. Dodge, Raymond. Die motorischen Wortvorstellungen (Halle, 1896), p. 65; 
"Visual Perception during Eye Movement," Psychological Review, VII 
(1900); "Eye Movement and the Perception of Motion," ibid. (January, 
1904) ; "Five Types of Eye Movement," American Journal of Physiology, 
VIII, 307-29; "Act of Vision," Harpers, May, 1902; "The Illusion of 
Clear Vision during Eye Movement," Psychological Bulletin, June 15, 1905; 
"An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation," Psychological Review Mono- 
graph Supplements, Vol. VIII. 

:i. Erdmann and Dodge. Psychologische Untersuchungen iiber das Lesen 
auf experimenteller Grundlage (Halle, 1898); "Zur Erlauterung unserer 
tachistoskopischen Versuche," Zeitschrift fUr Psychologie, XXII (1900), 
241-67; Psychologische Untersuchungen iiber das Lesen (Halle: Niemeyer, 
1898), p. 360. 

168 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 169 

12. Exner, . "Versuche iiber die zu einer Gesichtswahrnehmung 

nothige Zeit," Sitzungsbericht der Academic der Wissenschaft in Wien, Band 
LVIII, Abt. II, 1868; Entwurf zu einer physiol. Erkldrung der psychischen 
Erscheinungen, erster Theil (Leipzig and Wien, 1894). 

13. Finzi, J. "Zur Untersuchung der Auffassungs und Merkfahigkeit," 
Psychologische Arbeiten, III (1900), 289-384. 

14. Freeman, Frank N. " Auf merksamkeitsumf ang und Zahlauffassung bei 
Kindern und Erwachsenen," Arbeiten aus dem Institut fUr Psychologie und 
experimentelle Pddagogik, Band I (Leipzig: Alfred Hahn); "Grouped 
Objects as a Basis for the Number Idea," Elem. School Teacher, XII, 306-14. 

15. Goldscheider, A., and Miiller, R. F. "Zur Phys. und Path, des Lesens," 
Zeiischrift f. klin. Med., XXIII (1893), 131. 

16. Gray, C. T. "The Relation of Breathing to Oral Reading," Journal of 
Educational Psychology, IV (1913), 39-41. 

17. Gray, William S. "Measuring the Work of the Public Schools," C. H. 
Judd, The Survey Comm. of the Cleveland Foundation (Cleveland, Ohio) 
(see Appendix); "Methods of Testing Reading, I," Elementary School 
Journal, XVI (January, 191 6); "Methods of Testing Reading, II," 
Elementary School Journal, XVI (February, 1916), 281-98; A Tentative 
Scale for the Measurement of Oral-Reading Achievement (Master's thesis, 
Columbia University, June, 1914). 

18. Griffing, Harold. American Journal of Psychology, VII, 227-36. 

19. Griffing and Franz. "Conditions of Fatigue in Reading," Psychological 
Review, III (1986), 513-20. 

20. Hansen and Lehman. "Ueber unwillkiirliches Flustern," Philosophische 
Studien, XI (1895). 

2 1 . Huey, Edm. B . " Preliminary Experiments in the Physiology of Reading," 
American Journal of Psychology, IX (1897-98) ; " Preliminary Experiments 
in the Physiology and Psychology of Reading," American Journal of 
Psychology, July, 1898, pp. 576-86; "On the Psychology and Physiology 
of Reading," American Journal of Psychology, XI (1900), 283-303; XII 
(1901), 292-313; The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading (MacMillan, 
1909), p. 469. 

22. Judd, Charles H. "What Is Perception?" Journal of Philosophy, Psy- 
chology, etc., VI (1909), 36-44; "Photographic Records of Convergence 
and Divergence," Psychological Review Monograph Supplement No. 34, 
1907, pp. 370-423; "Some Facts of Binocular Vision," Psychological 
Review, IV (1897), 374-89; "Binocular Factors in Monocular Vision," 
Science, N.S., VII (1898), 269-71 ; "Retinal Images and Binocular Vision," 
Science, N.S., VII (1898), 425-26; "Reading Tests," Elementary School 
Teacher, XIV (April, 1914), 365-73; "Studies of Reading in Measuring 
the Work of the Public Schools," The Survey Committee of the Cleveland 
Foundation, 1916, pp. 124-61; "Reading," Fifteenth Yearbook of the 
National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, pp. 111-19. 



lyo TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

23. Judd and Cowling. "Studies in Perceptual Development," Psychological 
Review Monograph Supplement No. 34, 1907, pp. 349-69. 

24. Judd, McAllister, and Steele. "Introduction to a Series of Studies of 
Eye Movements by Means of Kinetoscopic Photographs," Psychological 
Review Monograph Supplement No. zg (Yale Psychol. Stud., N.S., I), 1905, 
pp. 1-16. 

25. KeUy, J. F. "The Kansas Silent Reading Tests," Studies hy the Bureau 
of Educational Measurements and Standards, No. 3 (Kansas State Normal 
School, Emporia); "The Kansas Silent Reading Tests," Journal of Edu- 
cational Psychology, VII (February, 1916), 63-80. 

26. Lamare and Javal. Annale d'Oculistique, Tome LXXXII (1879), 252. 

27. Mead, Cyrus D. " Silent Reading versus Oral Reading with One Hundred 
Sixth-Grade Pupils," Journal of Educational Psychology, VI (June, 1915), 
345-48. 

28. Messmer, Oskar. "Zur Psychologie des Lesens bei Kinder und Erwach- 
senen," Archivfur die gesamte Psychologie, Band II, Hefte 2 u. 3 (December, 
1903), pp. 190-298; Vorlesungen, B. 3 S. 

29. Meumann, E. "Die Entstehung der ersten Wortbedeutungen beim 
Kinder," Wundt's philosophische Studien, XX. Festschrift. 

30. Oberholtzer, E. E. "Testing the Efficiency in Reading in the Grades," 
Elementary School Journal, XV (February, 191 5), 313-22; Testing the 
Efficiency in Reading in the Grades (Master's thesis. University of Chicago, 
August, 1915); "The Effects of Efficiency Tests in Reading on a City 
School System," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education, pp. 138-40. 

3 1 . Pintner, Rudolph. " Untersuchungen iiber die Aufmerksamkeitsformen der 
Kinder beim Lesen und Reagieren," Pad. psych. Arb. des Leipz. Lehrer- 
vereins, IV (1913), i; "Oral and Silent Reading of Fourth-Grade Pupils," 
Journal of Educational Psychology, IV (1913), 6; "Inner Speech during 
Silent Reading," Psychological Review, XX (1913), 129-53. 

32. Pintner and GUliland. "Oral and Silent Reading," Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VII (April, 1916), 201-12. 

33. Quantz, J. O. "Problems in the Psychology of Reading," Psychological 
Review Monograph Supplement, Vol. II, No. i (December, 1897), 1-51. 

34. Roethlein, Barbare E. "The Relative Legibility of Different Faces of 
Printing Types," American Journal of Psychology, XXIII (January, 1912). 

35. Romanes, G. J. Mental Evolution in Animals, pp. 136-37. (New York: 
Appleton & Co., 1884). 

36. Ruediger, William Carl. "Field of Distinct Vision," Columbia Contribu- 
tions to Philosophy and Psychology, XVI (1907), No. i. 

37. Sanford, E. C. "The Relative Legibility of the Small Letters," American 
Journal of Psychology, I (1888), 402-35. 

38. Scripture, E. W. Elements of Experimental Phonetics (New York: Scrib- 
ner, 1902). 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 171 

39. Secor, W. B. "Visual Reading: A Study in Mental Imagery" {Minor 
Stud. jr. Psychol. Lab. Cornell University, XIX), American Journal of 
Psychology, XI (1900), 225-36. 

40. Starch, Daniel. The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading, Writing, 
Spelling and English (Madison, Wis.: The College Book Store, 1914); 
"The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading," Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VI (January, 191 5), 1-24. 

41. Sweet, Henry. Primer of Phonetics (London: Oxford University Press: 
Henry Frowde, agent. New York) ; A Practical Study of Languages (Holt 
& Co., 1900). 

42. Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Ability to Read," Teachers 
College Record, XV (September, 1914), 207-77; "An Improved Scale for 
Measuring AbiUty in Reading," Teachers College Record, XVI (November, 
1915), 31-50; XVII (January, 1916), 40-67. 

43. WaUin, J. C. W. Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, Grade and Sex and 
the Question of Transfer (Baltimore: Warwick & York, 1911); "Researches 
on the Rhythm of Speech," Studies from Yale Psychological Laboratory, IX 
(1901), 143- 

44. Whipple, G. M. "The Effect of Practice upon the Range of Visual Atten- 
tion and of Visual Apprehension," Journal of Educational Psychology, I, 
249-62. 

45. Zeitler, Julius. "Tachistoskopische Versuche iiber das Lesen," Wundt's 
Philosophische Studien, Band XVI, Heft 3, pp. 380-463. 



APPENDIX 

READING SELECTIONS USED IN THE DIFFERENT TESTS AND 

EXPERIMENTS 

ORAL-READING TESTS: PROSE 

(Tables III-V A) 

Directions to the pupil. — On a few of the pages which follow this 
there are some short prose selections. I want you to read them 
orally. Read as you do when you are called upon by your teacher 
to read. Do not turn any pages until I ask you to do so. 

After this there were given the standard oral-reading tests by 
W. S. Gray, from Studies of Elementary-School Reading through 
Standardized Tests (Supplementary Educational Monographs, 
published in conjunction with the School Review and the Elementary 
School Journal), Vol. I, No. i, p. 33. 

ORAL-READING TESTS: POETRY 

(Tables III, IV, VI, VI A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are poetry. These arejto be 
read orally. Again, read as you do when your teacher calls upon 

you to read. 

I 

Early every morning 

A birdie sings to me, 
"Get up! Get up! Up, up!" 

As plain as plain can be. 

Swinging in the blossoms, 

He makes the blossoms snow, 
Singing, "Up! Get up! Up, up! 

O sleepy head, you're slow!" 

Does a birdie ever sing to you 

In the morning ? 
A birdie sings to me 

Early every morning. 
172 



APPENDIX 173 



The Frost looked forth one still, clear night, 
And whispered, "Now I shall be out of sight; 
So through the valley and over the height 

In silence I'll take my way. 
I will not go on like that blustering train — 
The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain — 
Who make so much bustle and noise in vain; 

But I'll be as busy as they." 

Then he flew to the mountain and powdered its crest; 
He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed 
With diamond beads; and over the breast 

Of the quivering lake he spread 
A coat of mail, that it need not fear 
The downward point of many a spear 
That he hvmg on its margin, far and near, 

Where a rock could rear its head. 

3 
No! those days are gone away, 
And their hours are old and gray, 
And their minutes buried all 
Under the down-trodden pall 
Of the leaves of many years; 
Many times have winter's shears, 
Frozen North, and chilling East, 
Sounded tempests to the feast 
Of the forest's whispering fleeces, 
Since men knew nor rent nor leases. 

No, the bugle sounds no more. 
And the twanging bow no more; 
Silent is the ivory shrill 
Past the heath and up the hill; 
There is no mid-forest laugh. 
Where lone Echo gives the half 
To some wight, amazed to hear 
Jesting deep in forest drear. 

4 
There was a sound of revelry by night, 
And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her Beauty and her Chivalry, and bright 
The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 



174 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

A thousand hearts beat happily; and when 

Music arose with its voluptuous swell, 

Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again, 

And all went merry as a marriage beU; 

But hush! hark! — a deep soimd strikes like a rising knell! 

Did ye not hear it ? — No; 'twas but the wind, 

Or the car rattling o'er the stony street; 

On with the dance! let joy be unconfined; 

No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet 

To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet — 

But, hark! — that heavy sound breaks in once more, 

As if the clouds its echo would repeat, 

And nearer, clearer, deadher than before! 

Arm! arm! it is — ^it is the cannon's opening roar! 



ORAL-READING TEST: ORATORY 

(Tables III, IV, VII, VII A) 

To the pupil. — The next selection is taken from an oration. 
Read it aloud. 

With regard to the high aristocratic spirit of Virginia and the southern 
colonies, it has been proposed, I know, to reduce it by declaring a general 
enfranchisement of their, slaves. This project has had its advocates and 
panegyrists, yet I never could argue myself into any opinion of it. Slaves are 
often much attached to their masters. A general wild offer of liberty would 
not always be accepted. History furnishes few instances of it. It is sometimes 
as hard to persuade slaves to be free as it is to compel freemen to be slaves; 
and in this auspicious scheme we should have both these pleasing tasks on our 
hands at once. But when we talk of enfranchisement, do we not perceive that 
the American master may enfranchise too, and arm servile hands in defense 
of freedom ? — a measure to which other people have had recourse more than 
once, and not without success, in a desperate situation of their affairs. 

SILENT-READING TESTS: ANSWERING QUESTIONS ON PROSE 

(Tables IX-XI A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are prose. You are to read 
them silently. Read them only once, but read carefully. You 
will be expected to answer questions upon each selection in turn. 



APPENDIX 175 



It is a cold day. A little boy is playing in the snow. He looks into the 
tree. He sees a bird's nest. The nest and the tree are covered with snow. 
The boy plays in the snow under the tree. 

To the pupil. — Write upon the following sheet in the spaces 
left the answers to the questions. Use complete sentences in your 
answers. 

1. What kind of a day is it ? 

2. What is the little boy doing ? 

3. What is in the tree ? 

4. What covers the tree ? 

5. Where does the little boy play? 



Ned and Ruth are playing in the attic. Ned has a fire-engine. He likes 
to hear the bell ring. He has a big red wagon. He puts his ladders in the 
wagon. He plays a house is on fire. Ned runs very fast to the fire. 

1. Where are Ned and Ruth playing? 

2. What has Ned ? 

3. Where does he put the ladders? 

4. What is he playing ? 

5. How does he go to the fire ? 



On the steep hillside grew a tall ash tree. Right on the bank of the rushing 
brook it grew. Its branches spread far out across the little stream. Its leaves 
looked down into the flashing water. There, when the sun shone brightly, 
they saw leaves looking up at them. They called these "water leaves." 

1. Where did the ash tree grow? 

2. How far did its branches spread ? 

3. Where did the leaves look ? 

4. What did they see when the sun shone ? 

5. What did they call these leaves? 

4 

Switzerland is a land of moimtains and valleys and many beautiful lakes 
and rivers. Most of the people live in the valleys and keep cattle, sheep, and 
goats. In the springtime thousands of cattle are driven into the mountains 
to stay all summer. Many of the people go up into the mountains too. The 
men and boys take care of the cattle, and the women make butter and cheese. 



176 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

1. Of what is Switzerland made up? 

2. Where do most of the people live? 

3. What do they do for a living ? 

4. What happens in the springtime ? 

5. How do the people divide the work ? 



The Amazon River is in South America. It is the longest and largest 
river m the world. During the rainy season it is not imlike a great inland sea. 
In the dry season, when the stream is at its lowest, vast sand banks crop up 
here and there, above the water, and line the shores on either side. The 
greater part of its course is through a wild forest, and there are no great cities 
upon its banks. 

1. Where is the Amazon River? 

2. Compare it with other rivers. 

3. Describe it in the rainy season. 

4. Describe it in the dry season. 

5. Describe its course. 



The walrus is a flesh-eating animal, feeding mostly upon shellfish and 
worms, and is therefore generally found in the shallow waters along a coast line, 
diving for its food on banks which lie at a depth of from two to twenty fathoms 
below the surface. Deeper than that the walrus does not care to go; in fact, 
it generally feeds in about fifteen fathoms. 

1. What kind of an animal is the walrus ? 

2. What does it eat ? 

3. Where is it found ? 

4. How does it get its food ? 

5. How deep does it go ? 



The tall, solid walls of the great stone castles in which the Norman barons 
Uved betoken an age of violence and suspicion. Beauty gave way to the needs 
of safety. Girdled with its green and slimy ditch, round the inner edge of 
which ran a parapeted waU, pierced along the top with shot holes, stood the 
buildings, spreading often over many acres. 

1. In what did the Norman barons live ? 

2. What kind of an age was this ? 

3. To what did beauty give way ? 

4. What surrounded the castles ? 

5. How large were the buildings ? 



APPENDIX 177 



Go with me to Philadelphia as she was a hundred years ago. Observe and 
watch the movements, listen attentively to the words, look steadfastly at the 
coimtenances, of the men who compose the little congress assembled there. 
Braver, wiser, nobler men have never been gathered and grouped imder a 
single roof, in any age, on any soil beneath the sun. 

1. What place and time are mentioned? 

2. What is assembled at this place ? 

3. What are we to observe about this group of men ? 

4. Was this a large body of men ? 

5. Describe the men. 

9 
The qualities that made Holland great were the quaUties of the common 
people. The ideal character of the Dutch race is not an exceptional genius, 
but a plain, brave, straightforward, kind-hearted, liberty-loving, law-abiding 
citizen — a man with a healthy conscience, a good digestion, and a cheerful 
determination to do his duty in the sphere of life to which God has called him. 
Let me try to etch the portrait of such a man in a few and simple lines. Grant 
me but six strokes for the picture. 

1. What quaUties made Holland great? 

2. What are the characteristics of the Dutch citizen ? 

3. What kind of determination does the Dutch citizen have? 

4. What is said of his conscience ? 

5. How many strokes does the author require for a picture of this man ? 



The sincere respect for education which is typical of the American spirit 
is not a result of education. It is a matter of intuitive belief, of mental char- 
acter, of moral temperament. First of aU, the sure conviction that every 
American chUd ought to have the chance to go to school, to learn to read, to 
write, to think; second, the general notion that it is both fair and wise to make 
an open way for every one who is talented and ambitious to climb as far as he 
can and wUl in the higher education; third, the vague feeling that it will be 
the credit and benefit of democracy, not only to raise the average level of intel- 
ligence, but also to produce men and institutions of commanding excellence in 
learning and science and philosophy — these are the three elements which you 
will find present in varying degrees in the views of typical Americans in regard 
to education. 

1. What is the attitude of the American toward education? 

2. What is the origin of this attitude ? 

3. What chance should every child have? 

4. Why should the level of intelligence be raised ? 

5. Who should be allowed the advantages of a higher education ? 



1 78 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

SILENT-READING TEST: ANSWERING QUESTIONS ON POETRY 

(Tables XII-XIV A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are poetry. Read them 
silently and only once, but read carefully. You will answer ques- 
tions upon each selection as before. 



My Grandpa says that long ago, 

Before he was a man, 
His Grandma told my tales to him 

As only grandmas can. 

And long before he was a boy, 

In lands across the sea, 
The boys and girls were told the tales 

That now he teUs to me. 

So when my Grandpa reads a tale 

Or tells a tale to me, 
I know it is as old, as old, 

As old as it can be. 

To the pupil. — Write upon the following sheet in the spaces 
left the answers to the questions. Use complete sentences in your 
answers. 

1. Who is talking in this poem ? 

2. What other people are mentioned ? 

3. What countries are mentioned ? 

4. What does Grandpa do ? 

5. What kind of stories does he tell ? 



Once, in a rough, wild coimtry, 
On the other side of the sea, 

There lived a dear little fairy, 
And her home was in a tree. 

A dear Uttle, queer little fairy, 
And as rich as she could be. 



APPENDIX 179 

To northward and to southward, 

She could overlook the land, 
And that was why she had her house 

In a tree, you understand. 
For she was the friend of the friendless, 

And her heart was in her hand. 

And when she saw poor women 

Patiently, day by day. 
Spinning, spinning, and spinning 

Their lonesome lives away, 
She would hide in the flax of their distaffs 

A lump of gold, they say. 

1. Where did the fairy hve ? 

2. What kind of a fairy was she ? 

3. In what directions could she look from her home ? 

4. What did the fairy give to the people ? 

5. What kind of people did the fairy help ? 



And there was tumult in the air. 

The fife's shrill note, the drum's loud beat, 
And through the wide land everywhere 

The answering tread of hurrying feet, 
While the first oath of freedom's gun 
Came on the blast from Lexington; 
And Concord, roused, no longer tame. 
Forgot her old baptismal name. 
Made bare her patriot arm of power. 
And swelled the discord of the hour. 

With its shade of elm and oak 

The church of Berkely Manor stood; 

There Simday found the rural folk 
And some esteemed of gentle blood. 

In vain their feet with loitering tread 

Passed 'mid the graves where rank is naught; 

All could not read the lesson taught 

In that repubUc of the' dead. 

1. What could be heard in the air? 

2. What came from Lexington ? 

3. What church is mentioned ? 

4. Where did the people go on Sunday ? 

5. What is meant by "repubUc of the dead" ? 



i8o TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



It little profits that, an idle king, 

By this stiU hearth, among these barren crags, 

Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole 

Unequal laws unto a savage race. 

That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. 

I cannot rest from travel: I will drink 

Life to the lees; all times I have en joy 'd 

Greatly, have suflfer'd greatly, both with those 

That loved me, and alone; on shore, and when 

Thro' scudding drifts the rainy Hyades 

Vext the dim sea: I am become a name; 

For always roaming with a hungry heart 

Much have I seen and known; cities of men 

And manners, climates, councils, governments, 

Myself not least, but honor'd of them all; 

And dnmk delight of battle with my peers. 

Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy. 

I am a part of all that I have met. 

1. What kind of a wife did the king have ? 

2. What did this king do ? 

3. What experiences had he had ? 

4. What things had he seen ? 

5. Why did the king have a hungry heart ? 

SILENT-READING TEST: REPRODUCTION 

(Tables XV-XVII A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are prose. Read each one 
in its turn silently, carefully, and but once. You will be expected 

to write the story. 

I 

How big and strong the fire horses are! The firemen are good to their 
horses. The horses stand a long time in the engine-house. When they hear 
the alarm, they run to the engine. Down drops the harness! The firemen 
spring upon the engine. Then away go the big strong horses! When they 
come to the fire, they are not frightened. They stand still while the firemen 
work. 

To the pupil. — ^Write on the following sheet the story you have 
just read. If you cannot remember the words used in the story, 
use your own words. 



APPENDIX i8i 



The ox was hungry. He went to the barn, and put his head down into 
the manger. "Bow-wow! Bow-wow!" snapped a little black dog right under 
his nose. "Come," said the ox, "you must get out of my manger. You do 
not eat hay." "Bow-wow!" snapped the dog; but he did not get up. "Bow- 
wow! Bow-wow-wow!" At last the ox turned away. 

3 

In a short time the tent was up, beds were made, and lobster soup was 
ready for supper. Fan and I didn't like soup, so we ate raw lobsters and 
clams. Everybody was so glad to be on land that eating soup with clam shells 
for spoons, sleeping on beds of leaves, and hearing wolves howl were not hard- 
ships at all. 

4 

One night, soon after Daisy-Fair came to town, the moon was very, very 
bright, and of course you have not forgotten how much the flowers liked to hear 
stories on moonUght nights. So, when they asked the Lady Petunia to tell 
them one, she smiled and said, "I will tell you why the sunflowers hang their 
heads. Once upon a time, when the earth mother was busy taking care of her 
seed children — long, long ago, when the world was very new — a redbird 
brought her two small brown seeds and told her to take good care of them. "If 
they are brave seeds and grow their best, they shall have blossoms like the sun 
and almost as beautiful," said the redbird, and then flew quickly away. 

S 

On the fifth of November, which was the beginning of summer in those 
parts, the weather being very hazy, the seamen spied a rock within half a 
cable's length of the ship; but the wind was so strong, that we were driven 
directly upon it, and immediately spHt. Six of the crew, of whom I was one, 
having let down the boat into the sea, made a shift to get clear of the ship and 
the rock. We rowed, by my computation, about three leagues, till we were 
able to work no longer, being already spent with labor while we were in the 
ship. 

6 

Robin Hood on one occasion sent a present to Queen Katherine with which 
she was so pleased that she swore she would be a friend to the noble outlaw as 
long as she might live. So one day the queen went to her chamber and called 
to her a page of her company and bade him make haste and prepare to ride 
to Nottinghamshire to find Robin Hood in Sherwood Forest; for the queen had 
made a match with the king, her archers against his archers, and the queen 
proposed to have Robin Hood and his band to shoot on her side against the 
king's archers. 



1 82 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



The "medicine bag" is a mystery bag; and its meaning and importance 
necessary to be understood, as it may be said to be the key to Indian Ufe and 
Indian character. These bags are constructed of the skins of animals, of birds, 
or of reptiles, and are ornamented and preserved in a thousand different ways, 
as suits the tastes or freak of the person who constructs them. These skins are 
generally attached to some part of the clothing of the Indian, or carried in his 
hand. They are oftentimes decorated in such a manner as to be exceedingly 
ornamental to his person, and always are stufied with grass, or moss, or some- 
thing of the kind; and generally without drugs or medicines within them, as 
they are reUgiously closed and sealed, and seldom, if ever, to be opened. 



After a month's struggle, Mr. Pitts purchased the groimd on which his 
home was to be built. It was an indescribable hillside, bordering on the precipi- 
tous. A friend of mine remarked that "it was such an aggravating piece of 
profanity that the owner gave Mr. Pitts five dollars to accept the land and the 
deed to it." This report I feel bound to correct. Mr. Pitts purchased the 
land. He gave three dollars for it. The deed having been properly recorded, 
Mr. Pitts went to work. He borrowed a shovel, and, perching himself against 
his hillside, began loosening the dirt in front of him, and spilling it out between 
his legs, reminding me, as I passed daily, of a giant dirt-dauber. 

9 
The high stimulation of will-power in America has had the effect of quicken- 
ing the general pace of life to a rate that always astonishes and sometimes 
annoys the European visitor. The movement of things and people is rapid, 
incessant, bewildering. There is a rushing tide of life in the streets, a nervous 
tension in the air. Business is transacted with dispatch and close attention. 
The preUminary compUments and courtesies are eliminated. Whether you 
want to buy a paper of pins, or a thousand shares of stock, it is done quickly. 
I remember that I once had to wait an hour in the Ottoman Bank at Damascus 
to get a thousand francs on my letter of credit. The courteous director gave 
me coffee and delightful talk. In New York the transaction would not have 
taken five minutes — ^but there would have been no coffee nor conversation. 

RAPID SILENT-READING TEST 

(Tables XXI-XXIII A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are prose. They are to be 
read silently just as rapidly as you can read. 

You will be expected to write the story of the selections, but 
remember that the emphasis is on how rapidly you can read. 



APPENDIX 183 



This is the farmer's wheat field. The sun shone brightly. The rain fell 
softly. The wheat grew tall and golden. Now the wheat is ready to reap. 
See, the wind bows down the golden grain. The farmer will reap the wheat 
and take it to the mUl. 

To the pupil. — Write on the following sheet the story which 
you have just read. If you cannot remember the words in the 
story, use your own words. 



A man and a lion once traveled together. Each one boasted of his own 
strength, as if he were greater than the other. As they were disputing, they 
passed a stone statue, which stood near the road. It represented a Hon killed 
by a man. " See," said the man, " how strong we men are! Even the king of 
beasts must yield to us." "That sounds very well," replied the lion. "Was 
it a Uon who made the statue, or a man? Perhaps we would have told a 
different story." 

There are two sides to everything. 



I believe we can nowhere find a better type of a perfectly free creature 
than in the common house fly. Not free only, but brave; and irreverent to a 
degree which I think no human republican could by any philosophy exalt him- 
self to. There is no courtesy in him; he does not care whether it is king or 
clown whom he teases; and in every step of his swift mechanical march, and 
in every pause of his resolute observation, there is one and the same expression 
of perfect egotism, perfect independence and self-confidence, and conviction 
of the world's having been made for flies. 



Nitetis, a beautiful young princess, the daughter of Amasis, king of Egj^t, 
had, for political reasons, been betrothed to Cambyses, king of the Medes and 
Persians, and most powerfid monarch of his time. After bidding a final adieu 
to her parents and friends and all that her heart held dear, she had started with 
a brilliant retinue of followers on the long journey to Babylon, the home of her 
intended husband. She was accompanied by her father's friend Croesus, the 
old and wealthy king of Lydia, who acted in the capacity both of tutor and 
guardian; and everything was done that power or skill could devise to make the 
journey by sea and land delightful and easy. 



184 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

SILENT-READING TEST: OUTLINING 

(Tables XVIII-XX A) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are prose. You are to read 
these silently. Read each one once, but read carefully. 

You will be expected to write out what you consider to be the 
main points in each selection. 



The blood carries food for the body. After leather, yam, and cloth are 
manufactured, they are not stored away and locked up in factories, but are 
sent out over the country by railroads, canals, and rivers to cities, towns, and 
villages, so that the people who need them can find and use them. 

In the same way, after our food is manufactured into blood, it does not 
remain in the factory, but is sent out to all parts of the body, so that it can be 
used in buUding them up and repairing them. 

Instead of railroads, canals, and rivers, we have running through our bodies 
a system of little tubes; and instead of railroad trains and canal boats, we have 
the warm red blood flowing through these tubes, loaded with material the body 
needs to build it up. In your chest is the heart, a muscular pump, which works 
without ceasing day and night as long as you live, and forces the blood through 
aU of the blood tubes, even to the very tips of your fingers and toes. 

To the pupil. — Write on the following sheet the main points 
which you have obtained from the preceding selection. Number 
them I, 2, 3, etc., if you care to. 



We started off about noon; a goodly band of some eight or nine striplings, 
with two or three hammers, and a few pence among us, and no need to be home 
before dusk. An October sun shone merrily out upon us; the fields, bared of 
their leaves, had begun to be again laid under the plow, and long hues of rich 
brown loam alternated with bands of yellow stubble, up and down which 
toiled many a team of steaming horses. The neighboring woods, gorgeous 
in their tints of green, gold, and russet, sent forth clouds of rooks, whose noisy 
jangle, borne onward by the breeze, and mingling with the drone of the bee 
and the carol of the lark, grew mellow in the distance, as the cadence of a far- 
off hymn. We were too young to analyze the landscape, but not too young to 
find in every feature of it intensest enjoyment. Moreover, our path lay 
through a district rich in historic associations. 



APPENDIX 185 

3 

The simplest attempts to form monopolies consist of agreements between 
a number of producers to limit the product, to maintain fixed prices, or to ap- 
point common selling-agents. These agreements are seldom lived up to, and 
mutual suspicion among the members generally breaks them up. Yet a 
"friendly agreement" between four large beef packers in Chicago has sufficed 
to build up a practical monopoly of the cattle and meat business of the United 
States. In other cases, where the number of parties to the agreement has been 
small, this form of combination has created virtual monopohes. A second and 
more formal organization is the "pool.'* This is estabhshed by a formal agree- 
ment to maintain prices, in which the pinties agree to divide the territory, to 
divide the business, or to divide the earnings. Pools have been common in the 
railroad business, but have existed elsewhere, as in cases where nominally 
competing gas companies agree to serve separate districts in a city, and not to 
encroach upon each other's territory. Pools have often enough been broken 
up by the mutual distrust of the members; for, if one party to the pooling 
agreement breaks it while the others keep their promises, he may make large 
profits. 

SILENT-READING TEST: DIRECTION TEST 

(Tables XXV, XXV A) 

To the pupil.^On the next sheet you are told to do a number 
of very simple things. Do these just as rapidly as you can. The 
emphasis is upon speed. 

This was followed by Woodworth and Wells' direction test, from 
Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, Vol. XIII, No. 5, 

P- 71- 

COURTIS SILENT-READING TEST 

(Tables XXVI, XXVI A) 

Directions given orally. Manual of Instructions for Giving and 
Scoring the Courtis Standard Tests (rev. ed. 19 14. Issued by the 
Department of Co-operative Research, Detroit), p. 80, Test 4, 
"Normal Reading." 

NEWSPAPER TEST 

(Tables XXIV, XXIV A) 

To the pupil. — For your next work you will be given a newspaper. 
At some place in this paper there is a short article entitled, ''Lincoln 
Statue Ready to Adorn Illinois Capitol." You are to find this 
article as quickly as possible. 



i86 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



VOCALIZATION TESTS: PRONOUNCING EASY WORDS 

(Tables XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV) 

To the pupil. — On the next sheet there is a list of words taken 
from the material which you have already read. You are to pro- 
nounce these words just as rapidly as you can. 

Easy words: i. wagon, house, snow, spirit, wind, strut, feast, spear, frost, 
before, delight, spoke, early, body, general, crown, region, reason, maple, 
nest, night, stroll, woods, found, king, milk, mouse, home, dog, boy. 

The same words were given a second time in the reverse order, 
and a third time in an entirely different order. 

COUNTING TEST 

(Tables XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV) 

To the pupil. — The next work is very simple and very easy. 
You are to count as rapidly as you can for 30 seconds as follows: 
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; etc. 



SELECTIONS USED IN EYE-MOVEMENT EXPERIMENTS' 



Selection 


Reader 


Page 


Lines 


Silent Reading 


I 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 
Eighth 


55 
93 
45 
99 

/ 159 

I 45 

165 

84 


I- 8 


2 


I-IO 


3 


12-20 


4 


I-I2 


K 


12-22 


6 \ 


11-23 


6A/ 

7 


9-23 
18-26 


8 


8-22 






Oral Reading 


I 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


40 
45 
14 
93 
55 
48 
166 

83 


I- 8 


2 


I-IO 


^ 


5-13 

11-24 


4 


C 


10-22 


6 


4-18 


7 


9-19 

3-16 


8 





* References to "Riverside Series" of readers. Houghton Mifflin Co. 



APPENDIX 
SELECTIONS USED IN BREATHING EXPERIMENTS' 



187 



Selection 


Reader 


Page 


Lines 


I 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


64 
47 
68 
60 
29 
63 
36 
( 138 
I 139 


1-23 


2 


1-22 


■3. 


1-26 


4. 


1-22 


1; 


1-23 


6 


1-20 


7 


21-19 


8 


13-29 




I- 3 



SAMPLE MATERIAL FOR PERCEPTION TESTS 
PERCEPTION tests: EASY SENTENCES 

(Tables XLVIII, XL VIII) 



1. Pick flowers. 

2. The wind sings. 

3. I will help you find it. 



PERCEPTION test: NON-SENSE MATERIAL 



CHPD 
RDPXH 
ZKWHB M 
KCQLS 



(Table LVIII) 



PERCEPTION test: DIGITS 



(Table LVII) 



I- 59 
2. 734 
3- 8732 
4. 259182 



PERCEPTION test: GROUPINGS OF ZERO 

(Table LIX) 



0000 

0000 

000000 

0000 0000 

000000 

000000 

000000 

000000 



0000 



Reference to "Riverside Series" of readers. Houghton Mifflin Co. 



i88 TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

PERCEPTION test: VOICE-EYE SPAN 

(Tables L-LV) 

The underlined words indicate the points at which the light was 
cut off in the experimental work. 

I'll make a big scarecrow and stand it 
up in the cherry tree. That will do it. 
I'll have an old coat on that scarecrow 
and an old hat on its head. They will 
make it look like a man, and that will 
scare the robins. 

Seven other selections were used, each more difficult than the 
preceding one.^ 

PERCEPTION test: SILENT READING ' 

(Table LVI) 

Selections to determine range of attention in silent reading. 

Once upon a time there were a little old woman and a httle old man. 
One day the Uttle old woman made a boy out of gingerbread. She put it into 
the oven to bake. By and by she opened the oven door to see if it was done. 
Out jumped the Gingerbread Boy! Away he ran, out of the door and down the 
road. The httle old woman and the little old man ran 

Seven other selections were used, each more difficult than the 
preceding one.^ 

REPRODUCTION TEST 
ORAL READING: WRITTEN REPRODUCTION^ 

(Table XXIX) 

To the pupil. — The next selections are to be read silently, care- 
fully, and but once. After you have finished reading the selection 

' References not available. 

''Reference to "Riverside Series" of readers. Houghton Mifflin Co. 



APPENDIX 

you will be expected to tell the story, 
exact words use words of your own. 



189 
If you do not remember the 



Selection 


Reader 


Page 


Lines 


2 


Second 
Third 
Fourth 
Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 
Eighth 


/ 
I 


79 
IS7 
229 
61 
12 
13 

lOI 

98 


1-12 


7. 


I— 14. 


4 

c 


I-18 

5-22 


6 


18-27 


7 


I- 8 

i-iS 
1-17 


8 



SUBp:CT LISTENS TO SELECTION READ. 
WRITTEN REPRODUCTION^ 

(Table XXIX) 

To the pupil. — For your next work you will listen carefully 
while a short selection is read to you. When the selection is finished 
you will be expected to write the story. If you do not remember the 
exact words use words of your own. 



Selection 


Reader 


Page 


Lines 


2 


Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


/ 
I 

/ 
I 


116 
180 
181 
ISO 
198 

95 
8 

9 
149 


1-12 


5 


13-24 


A 


I- 2 
3-16 
8-18 


C 


6 


I-I4 


7 


18-28 


8 


I- 4 
1-20 







LANGUAGE TEST: OPPOSITE TEST 

(Table XXX) 

To the pupil. — On the next sheet is a list of twenty words. I 
wish you to write after each word another word that has the op- 
posite meaning. For example, if one word were far, you could 
write as its opposite, near. Work as rapidly as you can. 

' References to "Riverside Series" of readers. Houghton Mifflin Co. 



IQO TYPES OF READING ABILITY 

The following reference gives the test: W. H. Pyle, The Ex- 
amination of School Children (New York: Macmillan), "Opposite 
Tests," p. 29, I, II. 

GENUS-SPECIES TEST 

(Table XXX) 

To the -pupil. — On the next sheet is a list of twenty words. 
These words are class-names. I wish you to name an example or 
species under the class. For example, if one word were food, you 
could name bread, or if one word were clothing, you could write 
coat, etc. 

Work as rapidly as possible. 

The following reference gives the test: W. H. Pyle, The Ex- 
amination of School Children (New York: Macmillan), p. 30. 

PART-WHOLE TEST 

(Table XXX) 

To the pupil. — On the next sheet is a list of twenty words each 
of which names the whole of something. I wish you to write after 
each word a word which names a part of the thing. For example, 
if one word were engine, you could write wheel. If one word were 
foot, you could write toe, etc. 

Work as rapidly as possible. 

The following reference gives the test: W. H. Pyle, The Ex- 
amination of School Children (New York: Macmillan), pp. 31, 32. 

COMPLETION TEST 

(Table XXX) 

To the pupil. — The next selections have been written with 
certain words left out. You are to put in a word wherever a 
blank occurs. If the following sentence should occur, "The 

is falling and ," you might make it read, 

"The snow is falling thick and fast." Be careful to put in only 
one word for each blank and see that your sentences have meaning. 
In a few places parts of words are given and a blank is put in 
for the remainder, that is, "he might be heard " 

Work as rapidly as possible. 



APPENDIX 191 

The following reference gives the first test used: M. R. Trabue, 
Completion Test Language Scales (Teachers College, Columbia 
University, Contributions to Education), No. 77, Scale D, p. 23. 

The second test is as follows: 

An Fox fell into a and cried out for A Wolf heard 

and looked down to what the was. 

"Ah!" said the , "pray lend a , friend, and get me of 

this." ' 

"Poor ," said the Wolf, "how did come about ? How 

have you been ? You must be very " 

"Come, come," the Fox, "this is no for plying and 

questions. Get me of the well , and I wUl you all 

it afterward." 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Abell, 12. 

Accommodation, 121. 

Acuity, 121. 

Apperception, $. 

Articulation, 18, 19, 20, 34, 77, 79, 119. 

Attention, span of, 126, 127, 138, 146, 

IS7, 159, 167. 
Astigmatism, 120. 
Aussage, 140, 143. 

Baxt, 3. 

Binocular, 121. 

Breathing, 8, 10, 70, 71, 72, 77, 79, 80, 81, 

82. 
Brown, 14. 



Finzi, 6. 

Force, 18, 19, 20, 34. 
Franz, 6. 
Freeman, 4. 

Genus-Species, 62. 
Gilliland, 13. 
Goerz-Syntor, 85. 
Goldscheider, 4. 
Gray, 12, 13, 17, 24. 
Griffing, 6, 7. 

Hansen, 11. 
Headrest, 83. 
Huey, 6, 9, 10. 
Hyperopia, 120. 



Cottell, 3, 4, 6. 

Chronometer, 3, 71. 

Completion, 62. 

Comprehension, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 148, Insertions, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 

149, 151, 157; training in, 160, 165, 28, 31, 30. 

166. 
Correlation, 8. 
Counting, 65, 66, 68. 
Courten, 11. 

Courtis, 13, 51, 55, 56, 58, 60. 
Curtis, II. 



Inner speech, 10. 
Insertions, 17, 18 

28, 31, 30. 
Interpretation, 18, 19, 20, 34. 



Dearborn, 9, 83. 
De Zeng, 121. 
Diagnosis, 2, 14. 
Diaphragm, 72; test, 121. 
Dictaphone, 70, 75, 127. 
Dockeray, 7, 8. 
Dodge, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 83. 

Eastman, 86. 

Emphasis, 18, 19, 20, 34. 

Erdmann, 2, 3, 4, 9. 

Exner, 3. 

Eye-movements, 2, 8, 9, 21, 83, 91, 92, 

103; fixation points, 105, 106, 119; 

regressive, 9, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 

99, 100, 103, 104, los, 153. 



Jacquet, 71. 
Javal, 9. 
Judd, 9. 

Kelley, 12, 13. 
Kjonograph, 71. 

Lamare, 9. 

Lehman, 10. 

Letters: determining, 4; dominating, 5; 

geometrical form, 5; Gothic, 6; 

indifferent, 4; Roman, 6. 
Lip-movement, 11. 

Maddox rod, 121. 
Mead, 13. 
Messmer, 2, 5, 11. 
Meumann, 10. 
Microphone, 9. 
Mirror apparatus, 8. 



IQS 



"\ 



196 



TYPES OF READING ABILITY 



Mispronunciations, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 

25, 27, 28, 30, 31. 
Myopia, 120. 

Newspaper test, 51, 52. 

Oberholtzer, 12, 13. 

OciiKst, 120. 

Omissions, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 

28, 30, 31. 
Opposite, 62. 
Outlining, 43, 46, 47, 56, 58, 60. 

Part-whole, test, 62. 

Perception, 3, 5, 6, 9, 91, 123, 124, 125, 

127, 140, 151, 157; grouping in, 4; 

practice "upon, 6, 8; span of, 4, 6, 8, 

127, 138, 148, 151, IS9, 167; unit of, 

30- 
Perimeter, 122. 
Phonics, 164, 166. 
Phorometer, 121. 
Pintner, 11, 13. 
Pitch, 18, 19, 20, 34. 
Plaster of Paris, 86, 88. 
Pneumograph, 70, 71. 
Poise, 18, 19, 20, 34. 
Pronunciation, 18, 19, 20, 34; rate of, 

66, 67. 
Punctometer, 121. 

Quantz, 7, 8, 11, 12. 

Questions, answering of, 33, 36, 37, 39, 

41, 56, 58, 59, 103, 158, 160, 161, 162, 

163, 165, 166. 

Readers: objective, 5; subjective, 5. 

Reading: motor phases of, 8, 65; oral, 
II, 13, 17, 19, 20, 22, 28, 31, 34, 53. 57, 
99, 100, loi, 102, 112, 147; rapid, 46, 



48, 49, 56, 58; rate of, i, 11, 12, 19, 20, 
22, 24, 25, 28, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 
43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 5°, 5i, 53, 55, 57, 61, 
69, 92, 93, 95, 130, 136, 149; silent, 
II, 13, 17, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 43, 
46,48,49,57, 59, 92, 99, loi, 102, 107, 

147, 149- 
Repetitions, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 

30, 31- 
Reproduction, 12, 14, 40, 43, 44, 50, 56, 

58, 59, 60, 61, 103, 149, 150, 157, 158, 

160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166. 
Roethlein, 6. 
Romanes, 12. 
Rousslet, II. 
Ruediger, 7, 145. 

Sanford, 6. 

Scripture, 10. 

Secor, 10. 

Short exposure, 7, 8. 

Speed, training in, 149, 157. 

Starch, 12. 

Subjects, 14. 

Sweet, 10. 

Thomdike, 12, 13. 
Type, legibility of, 6. 

Verdun, 70, 71. 
Vision, distinct, 7, 8. 
Vocalization, 8, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 148, 
165, 166; training to reduce, 162, 163. 

Wallin, 10. 
WeUs, SI, 54- 
Whipple, 6, 8, 151, 158. 
Woodworth, 51, 54. 

Zeitler, 5. 



<f»» 



